環(huán)境藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì)外文翻譯--綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施景觀規(guī)劃整合人類與自然系統(tǒng)

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1、　　3700單詞，6040漢字　　綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施景觀規(guī)劃：　　整合人類與自然系統(tǒng)　　Green Infrastructure for Landscape Planning:　　Integrating human and

2、 natural systems　　學(xué)部（學(xué)院）：建筑與藝術(shù)學(xué)院 　　專業(yè)：環(huán)境藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì) 　　學(xué) 生姓名： 　　學(xué) 號(hào)： &

3、lt;/p>　　指導(dǎo) 教師： 　　完成日期： 　　Chapter Twelve　　Stockholm: green infrastructure case study

4、　　Context　　The city and county of Stockholm demonstrate the planning and implementation　　of green infrastructure advocated in this book. The city is

5、located approximately　　at latitude 59° N in southeast Sweden (Figure 12.1) within an astoundingly　　complex configuration of islands, coastline, freshwater lakes and saltwate

6、r　　estuaries on the Baltic Sea (Figure 12.2).　　About half of the County of Stockholm is composed of primarily fertile　　coniferous forest, but deciduous fores

7、ts also occur here. Forested land and the　　amount of protected forest is increasing in the county at the expense of　　agriculture, but the rate of increase is insufficient to prot

8、ect biological　　diversity.1 Within the city there are eight natural areas, including nature and　　cultural reserves and an urban national park, with a total area of 5,680 acres<

9、;/p>　　(2,299 ha). Of this 828 acres (335 ha) is water and 4,855 acres (1,965 ha) is　　land.　　332　　The buil

10、t environment　　Like many European cities, Stockholm was initially located to be　　geographically defensible. Constrained by the area of a small island in Lake

11、　　Mälaren, the city was compactly developed with multistory buildings, narrow　　streets and little natural open space. As the city expanded, especially after　　World War II, g

12、rowth followed the road alignments.　　Today, 872,000 people live in the Stockholm city area of 73 square miles　　(188 km2). Development within the city is compact since nearly 90 p

13、ercent of　　residents live in multi-family buildings (Figure 12.3). The resulting population　　density is 11,944 inhabitants per square mile (4,638 per km2). The region is

14、;　　increasingly polycentric and growing with the addition of 20,000 people per　　year.2 The population of the metropolitan area is now 2,050,000.3 The sections　　below c

15、onsider the municipal and regional scale, before focusing on a recently　　developed urban infill district near the city center.　　In a competitive process, Stockholm was designated

16、 the first Green Capital of　　Europe in 2010. The Green Capital competition assesses many factors of　　sustainability, which is broader than the consideration of green infrastructu

17、re,　　but many factors overlap, of course. Of particular interest here is the regional,　　municipal and neighborhood green infrastructure that supports multiple uses.&l

18、t;p>　　333　　Figure 12.1 Stockholm location map.　　Figure 12.2 Physiography of the Stockholm region. Photo 59°19'44. 15" N, 18°3'53.68&q

19、uot; E,　　12 September 2007 (accessed 15 April 2013) by Google Earth.　　334　　Figure 12.3 Stockholm urban core. Photo 59o19'21.92" N

20、 18o04'26.36" E, 12 September　　2007 (accessed 15 April 2013) by Google Earth.　　335　　Regional system　　Green w

21、edges　　The concept of a regional green infrastructure was articulated in the 1930s.　　Alternating fingers of natural landscape and human habitation with　　tran

22、sportation infrastructure was adopted as a general planning principle　　(Figure 12.4). Traditionally, Swedish farmsteads and villages were constructed　　on high ground or benches a

23、bove a river or stream. The floodplain and　　agricultural fields lay between the watercourse and the settlement. It is often this　　floodplain and old agricultural fields or pastur

24、es that form the spines of the　　green wedges flanked by the settlements and the roads that connect them.4　　Voluntary comprehensive planning of green wedges and then legally bindi

25、ng　　detailed development plans for cities and towns were in place by 1998.　　Stockholm adopted an urban infill plan in 1999 and in 2001 the County of　　Stockho

26、lm adopted a spatial, green wedge regional development plan, which　　was updated in 2010.2　　These decisions resulted in a radial regional plan with wedges of continuous

27、　　green infrastructure that had significant biodiversity value while being close to　　residential districts. The plan features ten long corridors of agriculture, forest

28、　and habitat at least 1,640 feet (500 m) wide (Figure 12.4). These corridors　　connect huge natural preserves outside the city and are essential to the high　　biodiversity near the

29、 city center. Ecologists in Stockholm found that habitat　　areas of 740 acres supported the needs of most native species, particularly　　when the area was more compact, rather than

30、 linear in shape. The widths of　　ecological corridors are variable according to the target species, but a 0.3 mile　　(0.5 km) width is defined by the regional development plan as

31、the minimum to　　accommodate both wildlife and recreation uses. There are many existing areas　　within the green wedges that are less wide than the recommendation,<p

32、>　　particularly near the city center. These are identified and labeled as one of three　　categories of weak points where more careful planning is to take place to avoid　　furthe

33、r erosion and where mitigation measures are to be undertaken. In fact, a　　detailed study identified all of the corridor breaks and barriers as a first step　　toward mitigation. Pl

34、anning documents also stress the almost insurmountable　　obstacles to dispersal of some species that busy highways present.5　　336　　Figure 1

35、2.4 The green wedges are shown as core habitat (dark green), secondary habitat　　(light green) and large recreation and natural areas (orange) within the urban (white) and　　aquati

36、c (blue) matrix.2　　Human use of the green wedges (Figure 12.5) is as important as the　　biodiversity benefits. For example, the National Urban Park in Stockholm<p&g

37、t;　　receives 15 million visitors each year.6 To foster public use of this and other　　green areas, 43 public transit stations have been designated as green stations.　　These are tr

38、ansit stops where citizens can walk 984–1640 feet (300–500 m) to　　reach a green wedge. Major green transit stations feature information about the　　adjacent natural resource.5<

39、/p>　　337　　Figure 12.5 Social areas and recreation use are major components of the green　　infrastructure and this area of the National Urban Park.

40、　　The green wedges are being increasingly codified. In 2003 the county made　　the commitment to add 71 new nature reserves and 28 study areas. By 2012 36　　of

41、these were realized. This official protection, rather than planning guidelines,　　assures that urban growth will follow the existing roads and rail lines rather　　than sprawling in

42、to the landscape infrastructure.　　The National Urban Park　　Stockholm established the world’s first urban national park in 1995 (Figure　　12.6). The park is pa

43、rt of one of the regional green wedges and the largest park　　within the city limits. It also extends into two other municipalities. In the　　European tradition, the 6,670-acre par

44、k is a mixture of cultural facilities, such　　as museums, recreation areas and protected wildlife habitat.　　Initially the Parliament defined the area as one of natural interest. T

45、he core of　　the park was inherited from royal hunting grounds of the previous centuries. The　　municipalities were given planning authority to foster democratic participation</

46、p>　　but secret negotiations between private construction companies and　　municipalities regarding development of public land before the initiation of　　public process

47、es resulted in the development of hundreds of acres within the　　national interest area boundary. The controversy generated by this practice led　　338

48、　　to citizen planning efforts and petitions organized by non-governmental　　organizations and supported by the media. With the prospect of a large road　　infrastructure p

49、roject that would have damaged the area, the National Parliament　　voted unanimously in late 1994 to establish the National Urban Park. The act　　took effect in 1995 and specified

50、more clear boundaries (Figure 12.6), purposes　　and protections.7　　Figure 12.6 Plan view of the Stockholm National Urban Park. Photo 59°23'34.56" N,<p

51、>　　18°01'28.84" E, 3 April 2012 (accessed 15 April 2013) by Google Earth.　　Development of new buildings and roads was not prohibited by the act, but　　development

52、 is not permitted if it negatively impacts any of the three purposes　　of the park — cultural, recreational and environmental. Existing buildings can　　be expanded if they do not i

53、mpact the park. In contrast, facilitates in support of　　park purposes were to be developed and protected within the park boundaries.　　Figure 12.6 shows that the park boundary enc

54、loses two core areas and a　　corridor through the urban development.7　　Public agencies are focused on strengthening the ecological connections　　diminished bef

55、ore the park was created8 and on the development plans for the　　industrial and port area to the east of the park.　　Ecology and the green wedges　　339

56、　　In the initial stages of planning the green wedges, ecologists studied native　　forest species in need of conservation attention to determine whether the green</p&g

57、t;　　wedges had the capacity to sustain them. Some species are difficult to sustain in　　growing urban districts due to large territory requirements, large core area　　re

58、quirements, specialized habitat needs, small or scattered populations or low　　dispersal rates. Species with one or more of these characteristics are especially　　vulnerable to the

59、 habitat fragmentation and degradation that accompanies　　urbanization. Two of the bird species in the study (nutcracker and the honey　　buzzard) have specialized habitat requireme

60、nts associated with certain species　　of shrubs and trees, and both had low and scattered populations. In the study　　area, forest clearing, removal of mature trees and conversion

61、of deciduous　　forest to coniferous forest were the most serious threats to the study species.9　　The six bird species included in the study were honey buzzard (Pernis&

62、lt;p>　　apivorus), goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), stock dove (Columba oenas), black　　woodpecker (Dryocopus martius), lesser spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos　　minor) and nutcracke

63、r (Nucifraga caryocatactes). The study found that the size　　of the available habitat, and the type and degree of connectivity, determined the　　presence of breeding pairs of these

64、 birds. The study mapped the green wedges　　and identified 67 sites within and outside the green wedges. Surveys were　　conducted in 28 of these sites. These defined a gradient fro

65、m the city center to　　the rural landscape. Near the city center habitat patches were smaller and more　　isolated. The forest coverage for the study area was 39 percent. For the ar

66、ea　　within 6.2 miles (10 km) of the city center, the forest coverage was 25 percent,　　while the area within 6.2 miles of the city center but outside the green wedges&

67、lt;p>　　had only 15 percent forested area.　　The study discovered a wide range of habitat requirements for the target　　species. The black woodpecker required territory with matu

68、re, mostly　　coniferous, forest as large as 1,235 acres (500 ha). However, this could be　　comprised of several habitat patches within an agricultural matrix with only 26

69、　　percent forest cover. In contrast, the lesser-spotted woodpecker preferred strips　　of moist deciduous forest along lake shorelines and required only 49–123 acres　　(2

70、0–50 ha) of good habitat. However, this habitat type is not as extensive as　　coniferous forest.　　The goshawk prefers large forest areas but has adapted to breed in<

71、;p>　　fragmented patches within the urbanizing region. The nutcracker and the honey　　buzzard required the largest territories, but benefited from good connectivity　　between hab

72、itat patches.　　The study outlined above determined that the needs of the bird species in the　　340　　Stockholm region can be met in the gree

73、n wedges if large and diverse forest　　habitats are preserved. It also determined that smaller habitat fragments are　　valuable if proximity is good.9 Continuous corridors linking

74、habitat fragments　　will be more important for terrestrial animals than for the bird species in this　　study.　　Large habitat areas still exi

75、st in Stockholm County, but nearer the city center　　habitat is fragmented into smaller parcels with a few exceptions. However, in　　this situation groups of fragments may serve as

76、 territory for some native species.　　For birds and mobile terrestrial species, the fragments can simply be close　　together, but for many species an ecological corridor must conne

77、ct the habitat　　fragments. This was demonstrated in a study of a bird, the coal tit (Parus ater),　　in the Stockholm region. This bird was known to be a habitat specialist</p&g

78、t;　　requiring coniferous forest habitat of 25 to 74 acres (10–30 ha). However, the　　bird was found in habitat fragments within a network. Patch networks with a　　total

79、area of 12–25 acres (5–10 ha) but where the fragments were separated by　　no more that 164 feet (50 m) served as breeding territory. The bird was found in　　habitat fragments great

80、er than 2.5 acres (1 ha).10 This finding is important for　　physical planning in urban and suburban areas where extensive damage to　　habitat has occurred. As noted earlier, for te

81、rrestrial animals it is more likely　　that the habitat fragments will need to be connected with ecological corridors　　for the network to serve as breeding habitat.<

82、p>　　Figure 12.7 This wetland and forest is in the northern core of the National Urban Park, but　　adjacent to high-density urban development.　　Wetlands amount to, at most, 4 pe

83、rcent of Stockholm County. About 1.2　　341　　square miles (3 km2) of wetlands have been lost and 4.6 square miles (12 km2)　　remain (Figure 1

84、2.7). Wetlands have been lost to roads and other development　　and 90 percent of the remaining wetlands are impacted by human activity. There　　are 850 lakes in the county and abou

85、t 100 of these are impacted by acidification　　(30 are treated with lime regularly to mitigate the acidity). This is primarily the　　result of air pollution originating on the Euro

86、pean continent. The Stockholm　　archipelago is impacted by excess nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage plant　　effluent and stormwater runoff and by heavy metals from urban runoff.1

87、 The city　　and county have an ambitious, continuous and cooperative environmental　　monitoring program. It correctly focuses on habitat and species monitoring to<p&

88、gt;　　assure sustained biodiversity. However, annual tracking of the populations of　　target species, such as greater cormorants and other species, is undertaken to　　monitor endang

89、ered species or sudden changes in species numbers.1　　342　　Urban parks and open space　　The green wedges extend from the county into the cit

90、y. Within the city there are　　21,000 acres (8,500 ha) of parkland representing 40 percent of the total land　　area and resulting in 27 acres (11 ha) of parkland per 1,000 resident

91、s.11 This　　compares to Los Angeles, with 10 percent of its area dedicated to parkland, and　　Portland with 15.8 percent.11 The parkland in Stockholm includes 12 parks that</p&g

92、t;　　are over 200 acres (81 ha) in size. The dozen parks contain about one-third of　　the city land area.　　The goal of green space near every resident is taken seriously

93、 in Stockholm　　since surveys demonstrate the public demand. Seventy percent of inner-city　　residents wish to visit green spaces more often and spend more time there. This</p&g

94、t;　　desire is independent of gender, age and socio-economic status. Distance from a　　green space and lack of time are the two reasons for less use of green spaces　　tha

95、n desired.5 New planning goals established distance and park size standards.　　Residents are to be no more than 600 feet (200 m) from a pocket or　　neighborhood park 2.5–12.5 acres

96、 (1–5 ha) in size and no more than 1,500 feet　　(457 m) from a district park of 12.5–125 acres (5–51 ha). In addition, residents　　are to be no more than 0.6 miles (1 km) from a na

97、ture preserve larger than 125　　acres (50 ha) in size.11　　As demonstrated earlier, the parkland amenity is also an economic value as　　expressed by rent and pr

98、operty values. When comparing condominiums, those　　near 27 acres (11 ha) of park land commanded $783 more for each 11 ft2 of　　floor area (600 €/m2) compared to similar units with

99、 parks with 17 acres (7 ha)　　of park environment.4　　343　　Ecosystem value of the National Urban Park　　Deciduous forest

100、s dominated by red oak trees are prized in Stockholm. In the　　National Urban Park one-quarter of all trees are oaks (see Figure 12.9). Oak　　trees had royal protection beginning i

101、n the 1300s and could not be legally cut by　　private parties until the late 1800s, due in part to their value in shipbuilding.　　However, much illegal harvesting took place and ot

102、her oaks were lost when　　forest was converted to farmland. In 1809 the royal hunting park in Stockholm　　was formalized and protected the oak forest.7　　Figure

103、 12.8 The Eurasian jay is critical for the maintenance of the oak woodland and　　provides valuable ecosystem services.　　Hundreds of species are associated with old-growth stands o

104、f oaks. For　　example, the oaks are dependent on the Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandiarius) to　　spread their seeds (Figure 12.8). Jays bury a store of acorns in the fall and live<

105、;/p>　　on them in the winter. The nearly 100 jays living in the National Urban Park　　hide about half a million acorns per year. About 30 percent of these are not　　re

106、covered from the soil and can grow into new oaks. An estimated 85 percent of　　the park’s oaks are the result of the jay’s natural seed dispersal. In order to　　estimate the econom

107、ic value of birds’ work, the cost of humans planting oaks　　can be calculated. Depending on the planting method (seeds or seedlings) each　　pair of jays does a job that corresponds

108、 to $880–3,920 per acre. Jays are　　limited to oak forests and unwilling to cross open areas. Therefore, it is　　important that large areas of oak forest or corridors connecting sm

109、aller patches　　are preserved to maintain the population of both birds and oaks.4　　344　　Figure 12.9 The National Urban Park provides hetero

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