外文翻譯--常用的結(jié)構(gòu)體系

1、<p><b>　　常用的結(jié)構(gòu)體系</b></p><p>　　若已測出荷載量達(dá)數(shù)千萬磅重，那么在高層建筑設(shè)計中就沒有多少可以進(jìn)行極其復(fù)雜的構(gòu)思余地了。確實，較好的高層建筑普遍具有構(gòu)思簡單、表現(xiàn)明晰的特點(diǎn)。</p><p>　　這并不是說沒有進(jìn)行宏觀構(gòu)思的余地。實際上，正是因為有了這種宏觀的構(gòu)思，新奇的高層建筑體系才得以發(fā)展，可能更重要的是：幾年以前才出現(xiàn)的

2、一些新概念在今天的技術(shù)中已經(jīng)變得平常了。</p><p>　　如果忽略一些與建筑材料密切相關(guān)的概念不談，高層建筑里最為常用的結(jié)構(gòu)體系便可分為如下幾類：</p><p><b>　　抗彎矩框架。</b></p><p>　　支撐框架，包括偏心支撐框架。</p><p>　　剪力墻，包括鋼板剪力墻。</p>&

3、lt;p><b>　　筒中框架。</b></p><p><b>　　筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)。</b></p><p><b>　　核心交互結(jié)構(gòu)。</b></p><p>　　框格體系或束筒體系。</p><p>　　特別是由于最近趨向于更復(fù)雜的建筑形式，同時也需要增加剛度以抵抗幾力

4、和地震力，大多數(shù)高層建筑都具有由框架、支撐構(gòu)架、剪力墻和相關(guān)體系相結(jié)合而構(gòu)成的體系。而且，就較高的建筑物而言，大多數(shù)都是由交互式構(gòu)件組成三維陳列。</p><p>　　將這些構(gòu)件結(jié)合起來的方法正是高層建筑設(shè)計方法的本質(zhì)。其結(jié)合方式需要在考慮環(huán)境、功能和費(fèi)用后再發(fā)展，以便提供促使建筑發(fā)展達(dá)到新高度的有效結(jié)構(gòu)。這并不是說富于想象力的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計就能夠創(chuàng)造出偉大建筑。正相反，有許多例優(yōu)美的建筑僅得到結(jié)構(gòu)工程師適當(dāng)?shù)闹С志捅?/p>

5、創(chuàng)造出來了，然而，如果沒有天賦甚厚的建筑師的創(chuàng)造力的指導(dǎo)，那么，得以發(fā)展的就只能是好的結(jié)構(gòu)，并非是偉大的建筑。無論如何，要想創(chuàng)造出高層建筑真正非凡的設(shè)計，兩者都需要最好的。</p><p>　　雖然在文獻(xiàn)中通常可以見到有關(guān)這七種體系的全面性討論，但是在這里還值得進(jìn)一步討論。設(shè)計方法的本質(zhì)貫穿于整個討論。設(shè)計方法的本質(zhì)貫穿于整個討論中。</p><p>　　很多土木工程師選擇了某種職業(yè)，而這

6、些職業(yè)最終通向管理層．另外一些工程師開始便選擇了管理職位的職業(yè)生涯。土木工程項目經(jīng)理將技術(shù)知識與組織協(xié)調(diào)人力、材料、機(jī)械和財力的能力結(jié)合起來。他們可能供職于市、縣、州、聯(lián)邦政府，或在（美國）國家工程兵團(tuán)任軍用或民用工程的管理工程師，或任職于地區(qū)或城市的半自治權(quán)力機(jī)構(gòu)或類似團(tuán)體。他們也可能經(jīng)營私人工程公司，規(guī)模從幾名到數(shù)百名雇員不等。</p><p>　　選擇教師職業(yè)的土木工程師通常給攻讀工程技術(shù)的大學(xué)生或研究生授

7、課。很多從事土木工程教學(xué)的工程師還參加一些基礎(chǔ)研究工作，從而推動建筑材料和施工方法的技術(shù)革新。很多人會出任工程顧問，或在一些重要工程項目的技術(shù)委員會或考察團(tuán)里擔(dān)當(dāng)顧問。</p><p>　　工程是一種專業(yè)，這意味著一個工程師必須接受專門的大學(xué)教育。很多政府管轄權(quán)中也列有從業(yè)許可程序，要求工科大學(xué)畢業(yè)生從業(yè)前要通過考試，就像律師從業(yè)前要通過律師資格考試一樣。</p><p>　　由于在解決這

8、些問題時，涉及到大量的計算，所以現(xiàn)在幾乎所有的工科課程中都包括計算機(jī)編程。當(dāng)然，計算機(jī)能夠比人類更快、更準(zhǔn)確地解決很多計算方面的問題。但是，除非計算機(jī)被賦予清楚而準(zhǔn)確的指令或信息，換句話說就是程序，否則計算機(jī)將是無用的。</p><p>　　盡管工科課程的側(cè)重點(diǎn)一向在技術(shù)類科目上，當(dāng)前的趨勢則要求學(xué)生選修社會科學(xué)和語言藝術(shù)學(xué)科的課程。工程學(xué)與社會科學(xué)的關(guān)系越來越密切，因而有充分的理由再次說明：工程師的工作以他自己

9、所熟悉的、不同的、重要的方式影響著社會。工程師還需要掌握豐富的語言，以便準(zhǔn)備條理清晰而且在很多情況下具有說服力的報告。從事科研的工程師為了發(fā)表其論文也需要詳細(xì)闡述其發(fā)現(xiàn)。</p><p>　　工科學(xué)生的最后兩年要學(xué)習(xí)所選專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的專業(yè)科目。對于要成為土木工程師的學(xué)生來說，這些專業(yè)科目會涉及到諸如大地測量學(xué)、土力學(xué)或水力學(xué)等科目。</p><p>　　在工科學(xué)生大學(xué)階段的最后一年到來之前，對

10、工程技術(shù)新手的招聘活動已十分活躍。近年來，很多不同的企業(yè)和政府機(jī)構(gòu)為了吸引工程技術(shù)人員而競爭。在當(dāng)今科技為先導(dǎo)的社會，經(jīng)過技能訓(xùn)練的人才當(dāng)然十分緊俏。譬如，年輕的工程師可能會選擇進(jìn)入環(huán)境和衛(wèi)生工程界，因為人們對環(huán)境的關(guān)注創(chuàng)造了很多就業(yè)機(jī)會，他們或許選擇進(jìn)入一個筑路施工企業(yè)，或者他們可能更愿意在一個研究水資源的政府機(jī)構(gòu)工作?？傊?，可選擇的機(jī)會確實很多。</p><p>　　當(dāng)一個年輕的工程師最終開始工程實踐時，必然

11、用到大學(xué)階段所獲得的理論知識。他或她在工作之初可能被指派與一組工程師共同工作，得到在職鍛煉，指導(dǎo)工程師可以檢驗其理論與實踐相結(jié)合的能力。</p><p>　　土木工程師可能從事的工作有研究、設(shè)計、施工管理、維修，甚至是營銷或經(jīng)營管理。這些不同類型的工作，對工作責(zé)任、側(cè)重點(diǎn)、知識和經(jīng)驗應(yīng)用的要求是各不相同的。</p><p>　　科研是科學(xué)和工程實踐最為重要的一個方面。一個研究者通常是一個科

12、研組的一員，他要和其他的科學(xué)家、工程師一道工作。他或她經(jīng)常供職于一個受政府或企業(yè)資助的實驗室。土木工程科研的領(lǐng)域包括土力學(xué)、土穩(wěn)定性技術(shù)、新型結(jié)構(gòu)材料的開發(fā)和試驗。</p><p>　　土木工程領(lǐng)域的很多高級工程師從事設(shè)計工作。正如我們所看到的，土木工程師的工作涉及多種類型的結(jié)構(gòu)，所以對一個工程師而言，僅在某種結(jié)構(gòu)上有專長是一種正?，F(xiàn)象。在建筑設(shè)計時，工程師通常是某個建筑設(shè)計公司或施工企業(yè)的顧問。堤壩、橋梁、給水

13、系統(tǒng)和其他大型項目通常聘用兒位工程師，在負(fù)責(zé)整個項目的系統(tǒng)工程師領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下協(xié)同工作。在很多情況下也會有一些其他專業(yè)的工程師介入其中，例如，在一個堤壩項目中，電力工程師和機(jī)械工程師會參與發(fā)電站的設(shè)計及其設(shè)備安裝。另外，土木工程師也會被指派為別的領(lǐng)域的項目而工作，例如，在實施空間計劃時，需要土木工程師參與諸如火箭發(fā)射臺和火箭貯存庫這樣的結(jié)構(gòu)的設(shè)計和施工。</p><p>　　幾乎所有工程項目的施工過程都很復(fù)雜。在施工時要

14、制定工作計劃，合理利用設(shè)備和材料，從而盡可能地降低工程費(fèi)用。安全因素也必須考慮，因為施工過程非常危險，因此需要很多土木工程師從事施工階段的工作。</p><p>　　結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)能使外墻中的柱具有靈活性，用以抵抗顛覆和剪切力?！巴仓型病边@個名字顧名思義就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包圍了第二層的一系列柱子，它們被當(dāng)作是框架和支撐筒來使用。配置第二層柱的目的是增強(qiáng)抗顛覆能力和增大側(cè)移剛度。這些筒體不是同樣的功能，也就是

15、說，有些筒體是結(jié)構(gòu)的，而有些筒體是用來支撐的。</p><p>　　在考慮這種筒體時，清楚的認(rèn)識和區(qū)別變形的剪切和彎曲分量是很重要的，這源于對梁的對比分析。在結(jié)構(gòu)筒中，剪切構(gòu)件的偏角和柱、縱梁（例如：結(jié)構(gòu)筒中的網(wǎng)等）的彎曲有關(guān)，同時，彎曲構(gòu)件的偏角取決于柱子的軸心壓縮和延伸（例如：結(jié)構(gòu)筒的邊緣等）。在支撐筒中，剪切構(gòu)件的偏角和對角線的軸心變形有關(guān)，而彎曲構(gòu)件的偏角則與柱子的軸心壓縮和延伸有關(guān)。</p>

16、<p>　　根據(jù)梁的對比分析，如果平面保持原形（例如：厚樓板），那么外層筒中柱的軸心壓力就會與中心筒柱的軸心壓力相差甚遠(yuǎn)，而且穩(wěn)定的大于中心筒。但是在筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)的設(shè)計中，當(dāng)發(fā)展到極限時，內(nèi)部軸心壓力會很高的，甚至遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于外部的柱子。這種反常的現(xiàn)象是由于兩種體系中的剪切構(gòu)件的剛度不同。這很容易去理解，內(nèi)筒可以看成是一個支撐（或者說是剪切剛性的）筒，而外筒可以看成是一個結(jié)構(gòu)（或者說是剪切彈性的）筒。交互式結(jié)構(gòu)屬于兩個筒與某些形

17、式的三維空間框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情況。事實上，這種體系常用于那種外筒剪切剛度為零的結(jié)構(gòu)。位于Pittsburgh的美國鋼鐵大樓證實了這種體系是能很好的工作的。在核心交互式結(jié)構(gòu)中，內(nèi)筒是一個支撐結(jié)構(gòu)，外筒沒有任何剪切剛度，而且兩種結(jié)構(gòu)體系能通過一個空間結(jié)構(gòu)或“帽”式結(jié)構(gòu)共同起作用。需要指出的是，如果把外部的柱子看成是一種從“帽”到基礎(chǔ)的直線體系，這將是不合適的；根據(jù)支撐核心的彈性曲線，這些柱子只發(fā)揮了剛度的15%。同樣需要指出的是，內(nèi)柱

18、中與側(cè)向力有關(guān)的軸向力沿筒高度由拉力變?yōu)閴毫?，同時變化點(diǎn)位于筒高度的約5/8處。當(dāng)然，外柱也傳遞相同的軸向力，這種軸向力低于作用在整個柱子高度的側(cè)</p><p>　　Commonly Used structural Systems</p><p>　　With loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room i

19、n the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.</p><p>　　It does no

20、t follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have becom

21、e commonplace in today’ s technology.</p><p>　　Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be

22、categorized as follows:</p><p>　　Moment-resisting frames.</p><p>　　Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.</p><p>　　Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.<

23、/p><p>　　Tube-in-tube structures.</p><p>　　Tube-in-tube structures.</p><p>　　Core-interactive structures.</p><p>　　Cellular or bundled-tube systems.</p><p>　　

24、Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built

25、 up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.</p><p>　　The

26、 method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide eff

27、icient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have b

28、een created with only moderate support from the structura</p><p>　　While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The

29、essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.</p><p>　　The project is one special, this meant an engineer must accept the college education. In the very many governments includes is

30、 employed the permission procedure front, requests of engineering graduates to be employed must through e, is employed like attorney must the qualifications test be attorney.</p><p>　　Because when solves the

31、se problems, involves to the, therefore in the present nearly all engineering all includes the computer programming. Certainly, can be quicker than the humanity, accurately solves the computations aspect problem. But, on

32、ly if the computer clear and the accurate instruction or the information, in s is the procedure, otherwise the computer will be useless.</p><p>　　Although the engineering course curriculum emphasis point alw

33、ays technology class subject, the current tendency requests to take as an elective the social sciences and the discipline curriculum. The engineering and the social are more and more close, thus has the full reason to mo

34、re: Engineer's work, is different, the important way which with by is affecting the society. Engineer also needs to grasp the rich language, in order orderliness is clear moreover has the persuasive power many situat

35、ion</p><p>　　The engineering course student finally two years wants to the specialized domain the specialized subject. as subject and geodesy, s or hydraulics.</p><p>　　In engineering course stu

36、dent university stage last before, has been extremely active to the project activity. In recent years, very many and the government apparatus for attract the engineers s to compete. In now the science and technology soci

37、ety, the process skill training talented extremely is scarce. For example, young engineer possibly can choose the ascent hygienic engineering, because the people have created the employment opportunity to the environment

38、 attention, perhaps enter a road bu</p><p>　　W university stage obtains. He is possibly appointed at the beginning of the work to with group of engineers, obtains in office engineer to be allowed to examine

39、the ability which and the practice unifies.</p><p>　　Civil engineering is possibly engaged in the work has the design, the construct control, the service, even is the management These different types work, t

40、o the, the emphasis point, the knowledge and the request are various.</p><p>　　The scientific research is the science and the project practices important aspect. A researcher usually is, he wants with other

41、scientists, engineer to work together public office to the laboratory s the government or the new structural material development and experiment.</p><p>　　Civil engineering domain very many senior engineers

42、are engaged in work. Just like we saw, civil engineering's work involves kinds of types the structure, therefore speaking of an the specialty in some kind of structure is only one kind of When architectural design, e

43、ngineer usually is design company or constructs enterprise's dike, the bridge, usually hire engineer for the aqueous system project projects, under in is responsible for the entire engineer leads the joint operation.

44、 Also can have s</p><p>　　The nearly all engineering project construction process very is. When construction must formulate the work plan, the equipment and the material, thus reduces the project far as poss

45、ible. The safety factor also must consider, because process is extremely dangerous, therefore needs very engineering to be engaged in the construction stage the work.</p><p>　　In considering this system, is

46、important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with

47、the bending deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the flanges of the framed tube). In

48、a braced tube, the shear comp</p><p>　　Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis,

49、 will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial

50、 stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of st</p><p>　　Core interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tube

51、s are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates th