外文翻譯---計(jì)算機(jī)程序

1、<p><b>　　英文資料翻譯</b></p><p>　　Computer Language and Programming</p><p>　　I. Introduction </p><p>　　Programming languages, in computer science, are the artificial lan

2、guages used to write a sequence of instructions (a computer program) that can be run by a computer. Similar to natural languages, such as English, programming languages have a vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. However, na

3、tural languages are not suited for programming computers because they are ambiguous, meaning that their vocabulary and grammatical structure may be interpreted in multiple ways. The languages used to program comput</p

4、><p>　　Programming languages vary greatly in their sophistication and in their degree of versatility. Some programming languages are written to address a particular kind of computing problem or for use on a par

5、ticular model of computer system. For instance, programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL were written to solve certain general types of programming problems—FORTRAN for scientific applications, and COBOL for busin

6、ess applications. Although these languages were designed to address specific </p><p>　　II. Language Types </p><p>　　Programming languages can be classified as either low-level languages or high-

7、level languages. Low-level programming languages, or machine languages, are the most basic type of programming languages and can be understood directly by a computer. Machine languages differ depending on the manufacture

8、r and model of computer. High-level languages are programming languages that must first be translated into a machine language before they can be understood and processed by a computer. Examples of high-</p><p&

9、gt;　　1. Machine Languages </p><p>　　In machine languages, instructions are written as sequences of 1s and 0s, called bits, that a computer can understand directly. An instruction in machine language generall

10、y tells the computer four things: (1) where to find one or two numbers or simple pieces of data in the main computer memory (Random Access Memory, or RAM), (2) a simple operation to perform, such as adding the two number

11、s together, (3) where in the main memory to put the result of this simple operation, and (4) where to find th</p><p>　　2. High-Level Languages </p><p>　　High-level languages are relatively sophi

12、sticated sets of statements utilizing words and syntax from human language. They are more similar to normal human languages than assembly or machine languages and are therefore easier to use for writing complicated progr

13、ams. These programming languages allow larger and more complicated programs to be developed faster. However, high-level languages must be translated into machine language by another program called a compiler before a com

14、puter can understan</p><p>　　3. Assembly Languages </p><p>　　Computer programmers use assembly languages to make machine-language programs easier to write. In an assembly language, each statemen

15、t corresponds roughly to one machine language instruction. An assembly language statement is composed with the aid of easy to remember commands. The command to add the contents of the storage register A to the contents o

16、f storage register B might be written ADD B, A in a typical assembly language statement. Assembly languages share certain features with machine lan</p><p>　　languages when it is important to minimize the tim

17、e it takes to run a program, because the translation from assembly language to machine language is relatively simple. Assembly languages are also used when some part of the computer has to be controlled directly, such as

18、 individual dots on a monitor or the flow of individual characters to a printer.</p><p>　　III. Classification of High-Level Languages </p><p>　　High-level languages are commonly classified as pr

19、ocedure-oriented, functional, object-oriented, or logic languages. The most common high-level languages today are procedure-oriented languages. In these languages, one or more related blocks of statements that perform so

20、me complete function are grouped together into a program module, or procedure, and given a name such as “procedure A.” If the same sequence of operations is needed elsewhere in the program, a simple statement can be used

21、 to refer </p><p>　　mini- program. A large program can be constructed by grouping together procedures that perform different tasks. Procedural languages allow programs to be shorter and easier for the compu

22、ter to read, but they require the programmer to design each procedure to be general enough to be used </p><p>　　in different situations. Functional languages treat procedures like mathematical functions and

23、allow them to be processed like any other data in a program. This allows a much higher and more rigorous level of program construction. Functional languages also allow variables—symbols for data that can be specified a

24、nd changed by the user as the program is running—to be given values only once. This simplifies programming by reducing the need to be concerned with the exact order of statement executi</p><p>　　Classes of o

25、bjects can also be further grouped into hierarchies, in which objects of one class can inherit methods from another class. The structure provided in object-oriented languages makes them very useful for complicated progra

26、mming tasks. Logic languages use logic as their mathematical base. A logic program consists of sets of facts and if-then rules, which specify how one set of facts may be deduced from others, for example: If the statement

27、 X is true, then the statement Y is false. In th</p><p>　　IV. Language Structure and Components</p><p>　　Programming languages use specific types of statements, or instructions, to provide funct

28、ional structure to the program. A statement in a program is a basic sentence that expresses a simple idea—its purpose is to give the computer a basic instruction. Statements define the types of data allowed, how data are

29、 to be manipulated, and the ways that procedures and functions work. Programmers use statements to manipulate common components of programming languages, such as variables and macros (mini-pr</p><p>　　Proced

30、ure and function statements define certain blocks of code as procedures or functions that can then be returned to later in the program. These statements also define the kinds of variables and parameters the programmer ca

31、n choose and the type of value that the code will return when an expression accesses the procedure or function. Many programming languages also permit mini translation programs called macros. Macros translate segments of

32、 code that have been written in a language structure d</p><p>　　V. History </p><p>　　Programming languages date back almost to the invention of the digital computer in the 1940s. The first assem

33、bly languages emerged in the late 1950s with the introduction of commercial computers. The first procedural languages were developed in the late 1950s to early 1960s: FORTRAN, created by John Backus, and then COBOL, crea

34、ted by Grace Hopper The first functional language was LISP, written by John McCarthy4 in the late 1950s. Although heavily updated, all three languages are still widely use</p><p>　　with the introduction of P

35、ROLOG6, a language used to program artificial intelligence software. During the 1970s, procedural languages continued to develop with ALGOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C, and A d a SMALLTALK was a highly influential object-oriented

36、language that led to the merging of </p><p>　　object- oriented and procedural languages in C++ and more recently in JAVA10. Although pure logic languages have declined in popularity, variations have become v

37、itally important in the form of relational languages for modern databases, such as SQL.</p><p><b>　　計(jì)算機(jī)程序</b></p><p><b>　　一、引言</b></p><p>　　計(jì)算機(jī)程序是指導(dǎo)計(jì)算機(jī)執(zhí)行某個(gè)功能

38、或功能組合的一套指令。要使指令得到執(zhí)行，計(jì)算機(jī)必須執(zhí)行程序，也就是說(shuō)，計(jì)算機(jī)要讀取程序，然后按準(zhǔn)確的順序?qū)嵤┏绦蛑芯幋a的步驟，直至程序結(jié)束。一個(gè)程序可多次執(zhí)行，而且每次用戶輸給計(jì)算機(jī)的選項(xiàng)和數(shù)據(jù)不同，就有可能得到不同的結(jié)果。</p><p>　　程序可分為兩大類(lèi)：應(yīng)用程序和操作系統(tǒng)。應(yīng)用程序直接為用戶執(zhí)行某項(xiàng)功能，如字處理或玩游戲。操作系統(tǒng)管理計(jì)算機(jī)和與之相連的各種資源和設(shè)備，如隨機(jī)訪問(wèn)存儲(chǔ)器、硬盤(pán)驅(qū)動(dòng)器、監(jiān)視器

39、、鍵盤(pán)、打印機(jī)和調(diào)制解調(diào)器，以便使其他程序可以使用它們。操作系統(tǒng)的例子包括：DOS、Windows 95、OS/2和UNIX。</p><p><b>　　二、程序開(kāi)發(fā)</b></p><p>　　軟件設(shè)計(jì)者通過(guò)特殊的應(yīng)用程序來(lái)開(kāi)發(fā)新程序，這些應(yīng)用程序常被稱(chēng)作實(shí)用程序或開(kāi)發(fā)程序。程序員使用稱(chēng)作文本編輯器的另一種程序，來(lái)以稱(chēng)作編程語(yǔ)言的特殊標(biāo)記編寫(xiě)新程序。使用文本編輯器

40、，程序員創(chuàng)建一個(gè)文本文件，這個(gè)文本文件是一個(gè)有序指令表，也稱(chēng)為程序源文件。構(gòu)成程序源文件的單個(gè)指令被稱(chēng)為源代碼。在這個(gè)時(shí)候，一種特殊的應(yīng)用程序?qū)⒃创a翻譯成機(jī)器語(yǔ)言或目標(biāo)代碼——操作系統(tǒng)將認(rèn)作真程序并能夠執(zhí)行的一種格式。</p><p>　　將源代碼翻譯成目標(biāo)代碼的應(yīng)用程序有3種：編譯器、解釋器和匯編程序。這3種應(yīng)用程序在不同類(lèi)型的編程語(yǔ)言上執(zhí)行不同的操作，但是它們都起到將編程語(yǔ)言翻譯成機(jī)器語(yǔ)言的相同目的。<

41、;/p><p>　　編譯器將使用FORTRAN、C和Pascal等高級(jí)編程語(yǔ)言編寫(xiě)的文本文件一次性從源代碼翻譯成目標(biāo)代碼。這不同于BASIC等解釋執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言所采取的方式，在解釋執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言中程序是隨著每條指令的執(zhí)行而逐個(gè)語(yǔ)句地翻譯成目標(biāo)代碼的。解釋執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言的優(yōu)點(diǎn)是，它們可以立即開(kāi)始執(zhí)行程序，而不需要等到所有的源代碼都得到編譯。對(duì)程序的更改也可以相當(dāng)快地作出，而無(wú)需等到重新編譯整個(gè)程序。解釋執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言的缺點(diǎn)是，它們執(zhí)行

42、起來(lái)慢，因?yàn)槊看芜\(yùn)行程序，都必須對(duì)整個(gè)程序一次一條指令地翻譯。另一方面，編譯執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言只編譯一次，因此計(jì)算機(jī)執(zhí)行起來(lái)要比解釋執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言快得多。由于這個(gè)原因，編譯執(zhí)行的語(yǔ)言更常使用，而且在專(zhuān)業(yè)和科學(xué)領(lǐng)域幾乎總是得到采用。</p><p>　　另一種翻譯器是匯編程序，它被用于以匯編語(yǔ)言編寫(xiě)的程序或程序組成部分。匯編語(yǔ)言也是一種編程語(yǔ)言，但它比其他類(lèi)型的高級(jí)語(yǔ)言更接近于機(jī)器語(yǔ)言。在匯編語(yǔ)言中，一條語(yǔ)句通?？梢苑g成機(jī)器

43、語(yǔ)言的一條指令。今天，匯編語(yǔ)言很少用來(lái)編寫(xiě)整個(gè)程序，而是最經(jīng)常地采用于程序員需要直接控制計(jì)算機(jī)某個(gè)方面功能的場(chǎng)合。</p><p>　　程序經(jīng)常被編寫(xiě)作一套較小的程序段，每段代表整個(gè)應(yīng)用程序的某個(gè)方面。各段獨(dú)立編譯之后，一種被稱(chēng)為連接程序的程序?qū)⑺芯幾g好的程序段組合成一個(gè)可以執(zhí)行的完整程序。</p><p>　　程序很少有第一次能夠正確運(yùn)行的，所以一種被稱(chēng)為調(diào)試程序的程序常被用來(lái)幫助查找

44、被稱(chēng)為程序錯(cuò)誤的問(wèn)題。調(diào)試程序通常在運(yùn)行的程序中檢測(cè)到一個(gè)事件，并向程序員指出事件在程序代碼中的起源。</p><p>　　最近出現(xiàn)的編程系統(tǒng)，如Java，采取多種方法相結(jié)合的方式創(chuàng)建和執(zhí)行程序。編譯器取來(lái)Java源程序，并將其翻譯成中間形式。這樣的中間程序隨后通過(guò)因特網(wǎng)傳送給計(jì)算機(jī)，而這些計(jì)算機(jī)里的解釋程序接下來(lái)將中間程序作為應(yīng)用程序來(lái)執(zhí)行。</p><p><b>　　三、程

45、序元素</b></p><p>　　大多數(shù)程序只是由少數(shù)幾種步驟構(gòu)成，這些步驟在整個(gè)程序中在不同的上下文和以不同的組合方式多次重復(fù)。最常見(jiàn)的步驟執(zhí)行某種計(jì)算，然后按照程序員指定的順序，進(jìn)入程序的下一個(gè)步驟。</p><p>　　程序經(jīng)常需要多次重復(fù)不長(zhǎng)的一系列步驟，例如，瀏覽游戲得分表，從中找出最高得分。這種重復(fù)的代碼序列稱(chēng)為循環(huán)。</p><p>　　

46、計(jì)算機(jī)所具有的使其如此有用的能力之一，就是它們能夠作出條件判定，并根據(jù)正在處理的數(shù)據(jù)的值執(zhí)行不同的指令。if-then-else（如果－則－否則）語(yǔ)句通過(guò)測(cè)試某個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)段，然后根據(jù)結(jié)果從兩個(gè)指令序列中選出一個(gè)，來(lái)執(zhí)行這個(gè)功能。這些選擇對(duì)象中的指令之一可能是一個(gè)goto語(yǔ)句，用以指引計(jì)算機(jī)從程序的另一個(gè)部分選擇下一條指令。例如，一個(gè)程序可能比較兩個(gè)數(shù)，并依據(jù)比較的結(jié)果而分支到程序的另一個(gè)部分：</p><p>　　I

47、f x is greater than y</p><p><b>　　then</b></p><p>　　goto instruction #10</p><p>　　else continue</p><p>　　程序經(jīng)常不止一次地使用特定的一系列步驟。這樣的一系列步驟可以組合成一個(gè)子例程，而子例程根據(jù)需要可在主程

48、序的不同部分進(jìn)行調(diào)用或訪問(wèn)。每次調(diào)用一個(gè)子例程，計(jì)算機(jī)都會(huì)記住它自己在該調(diào)用發(fā)生時(shí)處在程序的那個(gè)位置，以便在運(yùn)行完該子例程后還能夠回到那里。在每次調(diào)用之前，程序可以指定子例程使用不同的數(shù)據(jù)，從而做到一個(gè)通用性很強(qiáng)的代碼段只編寫(xiě)一次，而被以多種方式使用。</p><p>　　大多數(shù)程序使用幾種不同的子例程。其中最常用的是函數(shù)、過(guò)程、庫(kù)程序、系統(tǒng)程序以及設(shè)備驅(qū)動(dòng)程序。函數(shù)是一種短子例程，用來(lái)計(jì)算某個(gè)值，如角的計(jì)算，而

49、該值計(jì)算機(jī)僅用一條基本指令無(wú)法計(jì)算。過(guò)程執(zhí)行的是復(fù)雜一些的功能，如給一組名稱(chēng)排序。庫(kù)程序是為許多不同的程序使用而編寫(xiě)的子例程。系統(tǒng)程序和庫(kù)程序相似，但實(shí)際上用于操作系統(tǒng)。它們?yōu)閼?yīng)用程序提供某種服務(wù)，如打印一行文字。設(shè)備驅(qū)動(dòng)程序是一種系統(tǒng)程序，它們加到操作系統(tǒng)中，以使計(jì)算機(jī)能夠與掃描儀、調(diào)制解調(diào)器或打印機(jī)等新設(shè)備進(jìn)行通信。設(shè)備驅(qū)動(dòng)程序常常具有可以直接作為應(yīng)用程序執(zhí)行的特征。這樣就使用戶得以直接控制該設(shè)備。這一點(diǎn)很有用，例如，在彩色打印機(jī)更

50、換墨盒后，需要重新調(diào)整以達(dá)到最佳打印質(zhì)量的情況下。</p><p><b>　　四、程序功能</b></p><p>　　現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)通常將程序存儲(chǔ)在計(jì)算機(jī)可以隨機(jī)訪問(wèn)的某種形式的磁性存儲(chǔ)介質(zhì)上，如固定放在計(jì)算機(jī)中的硬盤(pán)或者便攜式的軟盤(pán)。這些磁盤(pán)上被稱(chēng)為目錄的額外信息，指明盤(pán)上各種程序的名稱(chēng)、它們寫(xiě)入盤(pán)中的時(shí)間以及它們?cè)诖疟P(pán)介質(zhì)上的開(kāi)始位置。當(dāng)用戶命令計(jì)算機(jī)執(zhí)行一個(gè)特定

51、應(yīng)用程序時(shí)，操作系統(tǒng)就瀏覽這些目錄，找到程序，并將一個(gè)副本讀入隨機(jī)存儲(chǔ)器。操作系統(tǒng)然后命令中央處理器在程序的起始位置開(kāi)始執(zhí)行指令。程序起始位置的指令為計(jì)算機(jī)處理信息作好準(zhǔn)備，其方法是在隨機(jī)存儲(chǔ)器中找到閑置內(nèi)存位置來(lái)容納工作數(shù)據(jù)，從盤(pán)中取回用戶指出的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方式選項(xiàng)和默認(rèn)值的副本，并在監(jiān)視器上繪制初始顯示。</p><p>　　應(yīng)用程序通過(guò)調(diào)用系統(tǒng)程序而對(duì)用戶輸入的任何信息都要求一個(gè)副本。操作系統(tǒng)將如此輸入的任何數(shù)據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)

52、換成標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的內(nèi)部形式。應(yīng)用程序然后使用該信息決定下一步干什么——例如，執(zhí)行某項(xiàng)期望的處理功能——如重新定義一頁(yè)文本的格式，或者從盤(pán)上的另一個(gè)文件獲取某些額外信息。兩種情況無(wú)論是哪一種，都要調(diào)用其他系統(tǒng)程序，以事實(shí)上完成結(jié)果的顯示或?qū)ΡP(pán)上文件的訪問(wèn)。</p><p>　　運(yùn)行結(jié)束或接到退出的提示時(shí)，應(yīng)用程序進(jìn)行進(jìn)一步的系統(tǒng)調(diào)用，以確保所有需要保存的數(shù)據(jù)已寫(xiě)回磁盤(pán)。然后，應(yīng)用程序向操作系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行最后一次系統(tǒng)調(diào)用，指明它已

53、運(yùn)行結(jié)束。操作系統(tǒng)接下來(lái)釋放隨機(jī)存儲(chǔ)器和該應(yīng)用程序使用的任何設(shè)備，并等待用戶的命令，以開(kāi)始運(yùn)行另一個(gè)程序。</p><p><b>　　五、歷史</b></p><p>　　人們用程序的形式存儲(chǔ)一系列指令已經(jīng)有幾個(gè)世紀(jì)了。18世紀(jì)的音樂(lè)盒和19世紀(jì)末與20世紀(jì)初的自動(dòng)鋼琴，就可以播放音樂(lè)程序。這些程序以一系列金屬針或紙孔的形式存儲(chǔ)，每一行（針或孔）表示何時(shí)演奏一個(gè)音符

54、，而針或孔則表明此時(shí)演奏什么音符。19世紀(jì)初，隨著法國(guó)發(fā)明家約瑟夫―瑪麗?雅卡爾的由穿孔卡片控制的織機(jī)的發(fā)明，對(duì)物理設(shè)備更精巧的控制變得常見(jiàn)了。在編織特定圖案的過(guò)程中，織機(jī)的各個(gè)部分得進(jìn)行機(jī)械定位。為了使這個(gè)過(guò)程自動(dòng)化，雅卡爾使用一張紙質(zhì)卡片代表織機(jī)的一個(gè)定位，用卡片上的孔來(lái)指示該執(zhí)行織機(jī)的哪個(gè)操作。整條花毯的編織可被編碼到一疊這樣的卡片上，同樣的一疊卡片每次使用都會(huì)編出相同的花毯圖案。在開(kāi)發(fā)和使用的程序中，有的由24,000多張卡片構(gòu)

55、成。</p><p>　　世界上第一臺(tái)可編程的機(jī)器是由英國(guó)數(shù)學(xué)家和發(fā)明家查爾斯?巴比奇設(shè)計(jì)的，但從未完全制造成。這臺(tái)叫做分析機(jī)的機(jī)器，使用和雅卡爾的織機(jī)類(lèi)似的穿孔卡片來(lái)選擇每個(gè)步驟應(yīng)執(zhí)行的具體算術(shù)運(yùn)算。插入不同的卡片組，就會(huì)改變機(jī)器執(zhí)行的運(yùn)算。這種機(jī)器幾乎能在現(xiàn)代計(jì)算機(jī)中找到所有的對(duì)應(yīng)物，但它是機(jī)械化的，而非電氣化的。分析機(jī)的制造從未完成，因?yàn)橹圃焖枰募夹g(shù)當(dāng)時(shí)不存在。</p><p>

56、;　　供分析機(jī)使用的最早卡片組程序是由詩(shī)人拜倫勛爵的女兒、英國(guó)數(shù)學(xué)家?jiàn)W古斯塔?埃達(dá)?拜倫開(kāi)發(fā)的。由于這個(gè)原因，她被確認(rèn)為世界上第一位程序員。</p><p>　　現(xiàn)代的內(nèi)部存儲(chǔ)計(jì)算機(jī)程序的概念是由美籍匈牙利數(shù)學(xué)家約翰??馮?諾伊曼于1945年首先提出來(lái)的。馮?諾伊曼的想法是使用計(jì)算機(jī)的存儲(chǔ)器來(lái)既存儲(chǔ)數(shù)據(jù)又存儲(chǔ)程序。這樣，程序可被視作數(shù)據(jù)，可像數(shù)據(jù)一樣被其他程序處理。這一想法極大地簡(jiǎn)化了計(jì)算機(jī)中的程序存儲(chǔ)與執(zhí)行的任