外文翻譯--發(fā)展中國家的軟件和業(yè)務(wù)流程外包出口借鑒印度的經(jīng)歷（節(jié)選）

1、<p>　　中文3900漢字，2400單詞，1.3萬英文字符</p><p>　　本科畢業(yè)論文(設(shè)計)外文翻譯</p><p>　　外文題目：Export of Software and Business Process Outsourcing from Developing Countries:Lessons from the Indian Experience

2、 </p><p>　　出 處：Asia-Pacific Trade and Investment Review Vol. 1, No. 1, April 2005 </p><p>　　作 者： Nagesh Kumar and K.J. Joseph </p><p>&l

3、t;b>　　原 文：</b></p><p>　　Export of Software and Business Process Outsourcing from Developing Countries: Lessons from the Indian Experience</p><p>　　Nagesh Kumar and K.J. Joseph</

4、p><p><b>　　ABSTRACT</b></p><p>　　India’s emergence as a globally competitive supplier of software and services has attracted worldwide attention. Against that background, this pa

5、per explores the contribution of this sector to the economy and highlights the role of policy initiatives and institutional interventions undertaken by the State in accomplishing this unique success, with a view to drawi

6、ng lessons for other developing countries. It is shown that the software and service sector not only contributes significantly t</p><p>　　1.INTRODUCTION</p><p>　　Economists have long noted that

7、services in general are cheaper in developing countries than in developed countries. This has been attributed mainly to an abundant supply of labour – the major input in the production of services – in developing countri

8、es, leading to low wages. Since the technology for producing services does not differ significantly from one country to another, lower wages result in a lower cost of producing services in developing countries (Bhagwati,

9、 1984). Yet, developing coun</p><p>　　Though the process of globalization, which inter alia implied the free movement of products and factors, accelerated momentum during the last two decades, there has

10、 been hardly any relaxation of the restriction of labour mobility. However, advances in information and communication technologies (ICTs) have made possible the “splintering off” of many of the services from its provider

11、s, which in turn has led to what is often called the “offshoring of services”.</p><p>　　No wonder India, with its large pool of skilled manpower, has emerged as a major exporter of IT software and related

12、services, such as business process outsourcing (BPO). In fact, one of the notable achievements in India during the last decade has been the emergence of an internationally competitive IT software and service sect

13、or. A number of studies have looked into different aspects of India’s IT software export boom (Schware, 1987, 1992; Sen, 1995; Heeks, 1996; Kumar, 2000, 2001; Aror</p><p>　　With the recent emergence of busin

14、ess process outsourcing delivered over the Internet, the so-called IT enabled services (ITES-BPOs) as a major source of employ- ment and foreign exchange,1 an obvious issue arises: are there any lessons from India

15、 for other developing countries aspiring to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the export of ITES, which is considered less demanding as compared with software? In this context, this paper examines the vari

16、ous factors that facilit</p><p>　　2. RISE OF INDIAN SOFTWARE AND RELATED SERVICE INDUSTRY: A PERSPECTIVE</p><p>　　(a)Growth of output and exports</p><p>　　The Indian software an

17、d related service industry, which include ITES-BPO, has grown at an unprecedented rate over the past decade or so. The output value of India’s software and service sector increased more than 18 times from less than

18、US$ 830 million in 1994-95 to US$ 15.5 billion in 2003-04. The sector growth, fueled mainly by exports, is clear from the fact that exports of software and services increased by more than 25 times during the same period

19、.</p><p>　　With such rapid growth, the software and related service sector today accounts for over 2.6 per cent of GDP in 2003-04 compared with 0.5 per cent in 1996-97, representing a more than fivefold incr

20、ease. Its share of India’s exports of goods and services has increased almost seven fold (from 3.2 per cent to 21.3 per cent) during the same period. Viewed from an international perspective, India’s share of the world

21、IT software and service market is 3.4 per cent, compared with only about 0.8 per cen</p><p>　　(b) Employment generation and other indirect externalities</p><p>　　(1)Creating jobs</p>&l

22、t;p>　　As shown in table 1, the software and ITES-BPO sectors accounted for 813,000 jobs by 2003-04. Of these, nearly 500,000 (260,000 jobs in software industry and 245,000 jobs in ITES-BPO) have been primarily for exp

23、ort-oriented activities. In particular, jobs in ITES-BPO have risen rapidly, from 42,000 in 1999-2000 to 245,000 in 2003-04. One may argue that the ITES-BPO services that are booming currently are relatively low value-ad

24、ding and low skill-intensive activities. However, because ITES-BPO se</p><p>　　Expanding the base of entrepreneurship</p><p>　　Apart from creating jobs for highly qualified professionals as wel

25、l as ordinary college pass-outs, the rise of the software industry has provided opportunities for expanding the local base of entrepreneurship. The initial start-up costs in the sector are rather low and economies of sc

26、ale are not particularly significant especially for service enterprises. Hence, the entry barriers are low. This has helped a number of technical professionals to start on their own. Many of the leading software en</p

27、><p>　　(3) Reversing the brain drain</p><p>　　The rapid rise of the software industry in the country has also helped to reduce the extent of the brain drain by creating rewarding employment opport

28、unities within the country, a trend also supported by the availability of venture capital to implement new ideas. The rise of the software industry has also prompted a number of non-resident Indians to return to the co

29、untry to start software ventures. According to some estimates, the rate of returning of professionals increased from 2 per cent in</p><p>　　(4)Facilitating capital inflows</p><p>　　The developme

30、nt of the software industry has led to an increased flow of capital to the country in three forms: foreign direct investment (FDI) by outside MNEs in their subsidiaries and joint ventures in India, foreign in

31、stitutional investments (FIIs) in software companies in India through stock purchases, and capital raised abroad by Indian software companies. It has been estimated that MNE affiliates account for 23 per cent of export

32、s of software services and 26 per cent of ITES-</p><p>　　3. RISE OF SOFTWARE AND SERVICE EXPORTS IN INDIA: THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT INTERVENTIONS</p><p>　　It is clear from the above that the rise

33、 of the export-oriented software and related service industries in India has been an interesting development with a number of valuable development consequences. Some observers have tended to argue that India’s succe

34、ss in the software industry has been an outcome of free play in the market and of benign State neglect (Arora et al., 2000). </p><p>　　It is argued here that India’s success in the industry is owed primarily

35、 to cumulative investments made by the national Government not only in building a supply base for qualified manpower but also in building institutional infrastructure for capability development. While the series of polic

36、y initiatives and institutional interventions made by the national Government during the 1960s and 1970s laid the foundation for the development of a vibrant software industry in India (Kumar and Joseph</p>

37、<p>　　“Effective software export promotion on a sustained basis can be effective in the long run only if it is planned as a part of an overall software promotion scheme covering both export and internal requirement

38、s including import substitution. Also planning for software devel- opment is integrally connected with the plan for hardware development and system engineering” (Government of India, 1985).</p><p>　　With t

39、he initiation of economic reforms in the early 1990s, the Finance Ministry made an assessment indicating that, apart from the general orientation of all industries towards export markets, India’s comparative advantage

40、 was in software and not in hardware. Therefore, a major thrust was consciously given to software exports. Accordingly, new policy measures have been initiated, among which are the following:</p><p>　　(a)

41、the removal of entry barriers against foreign companies; (b) the removal of restrictions on foreign technology transfers; (c) the participation of the private sector in policymaking; (d) provisions to finance software

42、 development through equity and venture capital; (e) measures to make available faster and cheaper data communication facilities; and (f) the reduction and rationalization of taxes, duties and tariffs (Narayanamurthy,

43、2000).3</p><p>　　4.CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS</p><p>　　The export performance of India’s software and service sector during the last decade has been unprecedented. As a result, the software an

44、d service sector accounts for over 20 per cent of India’s total exports and 2.6 per cent of GDP. In addition, there has been a marked decline in the share of on-site services and today almost 60 per cent of India’s sof

45、tware and services export takes the form of offshore services. Furthermore, India’s software sector is moving up the value chain, </p><p>　　While it has been argued that India’s success in software a

46、nd related services is the outcome of benign State neglect, the present paper shows that such conclusions not only conceal more than they reveal but are of little relevance for countries that are in the process of develo

47、ping such capacity because there are many developing countries that have assigned a prime role to the market and have nonetheless achieved limited success. While India’s success is due to the cumulative efforts of t

48、h</p><p>　　REFERENCES</p><p>　　Arora, A., V. S. Arunachalam, J. Asundi and F. Ronald, 2000. “The Indian software services industry”, Research Policy, vol. 30, pp. 1267-1287.</p><p

49、>　　Bhagwati, J. N., 1984. “Why are services cheaper in poor countries?”, Economic Journal, vol. 94, pp. 279-285.</p><p>　　Dataquest, 2004. “Software export: soaring high”, <http://www.dqindia.com/dqt

50、op20/ 2004/ArtIndseg.asp?artid=59645>.</p><p>　　D’Costa, A. P., 2003. “Uneven and combined development: understanding India’s software exports”, World Development, vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 211-226.</

51、p><p>　　Heeks, R., 1996. “India’s Software Industry: State Policy, Liberalization and Industrial Development”, Sage Publications, New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, London.</p><p>　　India, 1985. “New Comp

52、uter Policy”. The Gazette of India, 31 August, pp. 679-681. India, DIT, 2004. “Guide to Electronics Industry in India”, Department of Information</p><p>　　Technology, New Delhi.</p><p>　　India

53、, DoE, 1986. “Policy on computer software exports, software development and training”, Department of Electronics, New Delhi.</p><p>　　India, DoE, 1996. “Guide to Electronics Industry in India”, Department o

54、f Electronics, New Delhi.</p><p>　　India, DoT, 2004. Annual Report 2003-2004, Depart of Telecommunications, New Delhi.</p><p>　　India, MIT, 2000. “Action taken report of the National Task F

55、orce on Information Technology and Software Development”, IT Action Plan: Part I. Ministry of Information Technology, New Delhi.</p><p>　　India, MIT 2000a. Annual Report, Ministry of Information Technology,

56、 New Delhi.</p><p>　　India, MIT 2001. “Presentation of the study team report on human resources for X five year plan (2002-2007)” <http://www.mit.gov.in/studyteam.ppt>.</p><p>　　India,

57、 NTITSD, 1998. IT Action Plan (three volumes), New Delhi, National Taskforce on Information Technology and Software Development, <http://www.it- taskforce.nic.in/>.</p><p>　　IMF, 2001. World Economic

58、 Outlook: The Information Technology Revolution, October.</p><p>　　Joseph, K. J., 2002. “Growth of ICT and ICT for development: realities of the myths of Indian experience”, Discussion Paper, No. 200

59、2/78, WIDER-UNU, August,</p><p>　　<http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/publications.htm>.</p><p>　　Joseph, K. J. and K. N. Harilal, 2001. “Structure and growth of India’s IT exports:

60、implications of an export-oriented growth strategy”, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 36, No. 34, pp. 3263-3270.</p><p>　　Joseph, K. J. and V. Abraham, 2002. “Moving up or lagging behind in technology

61、?” An Analysis of India’s ICT Sector, paper presented in the International seminar on ICTs and Indian Development, jointly organized by ISS (the Hague) and IHD (New Delhi), Bangalore, 9-11 December 2002. Forthcomin

62、g in Aswini Saith et al. (eds.), ICTs and Indian Development, Sage Publications.</p><p>　　Kumar, N., 2000. “Developing countries in international division of labour in software and service industry: les

63、sons from Indian experience”, a background paper for the World Employment Report 2001, RIS, New Delhi.</p><p>　　Kumar, N., 2001. “Indian software industry development: international and national per

64、spective”, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 36, No. 10, November.</p><p>　　Kumar, N., 2003. “Liberalization, foreign direct investment flows and economic development: the Indian experience in the 1990s

65、”, RIS Discussion Paper No. 65/ 2004, Research and Information System for Non-Aligned and other Developing Countries, New Delhi.</p><p>　　Kumar, N. and K. J. Joseph, 2004. “National innovation systems and In

66、dia’s IT capability: are there any lessons for ASEAN newcomers?”, RIS Discussion Paper No. 72/2004, Research and Information System for Non-Aligned and other Developing Countries, New Delhi.</p><p>　　Lateef,

67、 Asma, 1997. “Linking up with the global economy: a case study of the Bangalore software industry”, NIOP, DP/96/97, Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies.</p><p>　　National Association of Softwa

68、re and Service Companies (NASSCOM), 2000. “The IT software and services industry in India: strategic review 2000”, National Associa- tion of Software and Service Companies, New Delhi.</p><p>　　NASSCOM, 200

69、4. “The IT software and services industry in India: strategic review 2004”, National Association of Software and Service Companies, New Delhi.</p><p>　　Narayanamurthy, N. R., 2000. “Making India a signi

70、ficant IT player in this millennium”, in Romila Thapar (ed.), India: Another Millennium, New Delhi: Viking and Penguin Books.</p><p>　　Parthasarathi, A., and K. J. Joseph, 2002. “Limits to innovation set

71、by strong export orientation: the experience of India’s information and communication technology sector”, Science, Technology and Society, vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 13-49.</p><p>　　Schware, R., 1987. “Software Indu

72、stry in the third world: policy guidelines, institutional options and constraints”, World Development, vol. 15, No. 10/11, pp. 1249-1267.</p><p><b>　　譯 文：</b></p><p>　　發(fā)展中國家的軟件

73、和業(yè)務(wù)流程外包出口：借鑒印度的經(jīng)歷</p><p><b>　　摘 要 </b></p><p>　　印度作為一個在軟件和服務(wù)方面具有全球競爭力的供應(yīng)商而出現(xiàn)，已經(jīng)引起了全球的關(guān)注。在這種背景下，本文探討了這一領(lǐng)域在經(jīng)濟上的貢獻，并強調(diào)，從其他發(fā)展中國家的經(jīng)驗教訓(xùn)可知，國家承擔(dān)了推行新政策和制度干預(yù)的責(zé)任，并取得了獨特的成功。它表明，軟件和服務(wù)領(lǐng)域不僅極大地促進了出口

74、收入和國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值，也可作為創(chuàng)造該國就業(yè)機會的主要來源。此外，信息技術(shù)（IT）領(lǐng)域充當(dāng)了一片肥沃的土壤,把新的企業(yè)守則用于企業(yè)家的成長,有助于扭轉(zhuǎn)人才外流，提高印度的品牌資產(chǎn)和吸引國外直接投資（FDI）以及引導(dǎo)其他相關(guān)的利益。本文認為，這些和其他利益，存在著對其他領(lǐng)域的熟練工人在機會成本競爭上的不良影響。還指出，印度的成功主要是歸因于過去的五十年，政府在建設(shè)國家創(chuàng)新體系，奠定了技能和技術(shù)密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)的發(fā)展，如IT，基礎(chǔ)軟件的累計投資及相關(guān)

75、服務(wù)。這包括在工程技術(shù)學(xué)科上的高等教育體系。創(chuàng)造了制度保障科學(xué)技術(shù)的政策制定和實施、建筑成為卓越的學(xué)術(shù)中心，一個國家信息基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施和許多其他機構(gòu)科技發(fā)展等舉措。在其他機構(gòu)中心，發(fā)揮私營部門投資的作用是不能忽視的，特別是在過去十年中，印度的軟件業(yè)得到了進一步提升。在某種意義上說，印度提出了國家干</p><p><b>　　一、引言</b></p><p>　　經(jīng)濟學(xué)家們

76、早就指出，發(fā)展中國家的服務(wù)業(yè)一般要比發(fā)達國家的便宜。這主要是在發(fā)展中國家，有充足的勞動力投入到生產(chǎn)服務(wù)中，所以他們的工資水平比較低。由于國家之間在生產(chǎn)服務(wù)技術(shù)水平上并無顯著差異，發(fā)展中國家的低工資可以降低在生產(chǎn)服務(wù)中的成本（巴格瓦蒂，1984年）。然而，大多數(shù)發(fā)展中國家無法從低成本優(yōu)勢中受益，主要是因為他們大部分服務(wù)的提供和出口需要跨界運輸。然而勞動力的轉(zhuǎn)移，不像資金運轉(zhuǎn)，會遭到一系列限制。</p><p>　　

77、雖然在經(jīng)濟全球化的進程中，加速了產(chǎn)品和要素在過去二十年自由流動的勢頭，但幾乎沒有放松對勞動力流動的限制。然而，先進的信息和通信技術(shù)（ICT）已經(jīng)使供應(yīng)商所提供的服務(wù)分門別類成為可能，從而產(chǎn)生了常被稱為的“離岸外包服務(wù)”。</p><p>　　毫無疑問，印度擁有大批技術(shù)熟練的人力資源，已成為一個IT軟件及相關(guān)服務(wù)的出口大國，如業(yè)務(wù)流程外包。事實上，印度在過去十年中顯著的成就之一是具有國際競爭力的IT軟件和服務(wù)部門。

78、許多學(xué)者已經(jīng)從不同方面研究了印度IT軟件出口的高速增長(Schware, 1987, 1992; Sen, 1995; Heeks, 1996; Kumar, 2000, 2001; Arora et al, 2001;Joseph and Harilal, 2001; Parthasarathi and Joseph, 2002; Joseph, 2002).</p><p>　　最近隨著業(yè)務(wù)流程外包在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上

79、的傳遞，所謂的可行的服務(wù)(如：ITES-BPOs)成為了提供就業(yè)和外匯兌換的主要來源。但一個明顯的問題產(chǎn)生了：是否有其他發(fā)展中國家渴望從印度信息技術(shù)外包出口中吸取經(jīng)驗教訓(xùn)，這與軟件相比，要求并不高，在此背景下，本文探討了許多導(dǎo)致印度作為主要的IT軟件和服務(wù)的提供者而在世界市場上崛起的因素。</p><p>　　二、印度軟件和相關(guān)服務(wù)行業(yè)崛起的一個透視</p><p>　?。ㄒ唬┊a(chǎn)出和出口增

80、長</p><p>　　印度的軟件和相關(guān)服務(wù)行業(yè)，其中包括信息技術(shù)外包和業(yè)務(wù)流程外包，已經(jīng)在過去十年里以一個驚人的速度成長。印度的軟件和服務(wù)部門的產(chǎn)值，從1994年到1995年的少于8.3億美元，到從2003到2004的155億美元，增長了至少18倍。可以清楚的看到，該部門的增長主要得益于出口，在同一時期，軟件和服務(wù)出口增加了25倍以上。</p><p>　　有了如此迅速的增長速度，軟件和

81、相關(guān)服務(wù)業(yè)的比重在2003-2004年占國民生產(chǎn)總值的2.6%，而它的比重在1996到1997年只占國民生產(chǎn)總值的0.5%，相當(dāng)于增加了五倍多。在同一時期，其對印度商品和服務(wù)出口額增加了近7倍（從3.2%至21.3%）。從國際角度來看，印度的IT軟件和服務(wù)市場的比重是世界的3.4%，約占全球貿(mào)易總額的0.8%。此外，印度橫跨邊界外購的定制軟件在全球市場上的占有率也更為顯著。據(jù)估計，它在1999年之前就到達了18.5% (NASSCOM

82、2000)。 </p><p>　?。ǘ﹦?chuàng)造就業(yè)機會和其他間接的外部效應(yīng)</p><p><b>　　1.創(chuàng)造就業(yè)機會</b></p><p>　　如表1所示，2003到2004年，軟件和ITES - BPO行業(yè)占了813,000個職位，其中，將近50萬（26萬的工作是軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)，245,000是ITES - BPO）已被主要用于出口為導(dǎo)向的活

83、動。特別是，ITES-BPO工作上升比較迅速，從1999-2000年度的42,000 個至 2003-2004年度的245,000個。有人可能會認為，相對于較低的增值和低技術(shù)密集的活動而言，信息技術(shù)外包和業(yè)務(wù)流程外包業(yè)務(wù)，是目前蓬勃發(fā)展的行業(yè)。然而，因為ITES-BPO服務(wù)是低價值增加，他們對地方經(jīng)濟做的巨大貢獻是給成千上萬剛從學(xué)校畢業(yè)的學(xué)生創(chuàng)造工作機會，他們既沒有技術(shù)也沒有專業(yè)資格。在ITES-BPO區(qū)段，我們發(fā)現(xiàn)每出口一百萬美元大約

84、雇傭70個員工，它比軟件區(qū)域多2倍。這樣看來，ITES-BPO的出現(xiàn)似乎給該國青年帶來了越來越多的就業(yè)機會。</p><p><b>　　2.擴大創(chuàng)業(yè)基地</b></p><p>　　像普通高校一樣創(chuàng)造人才和分配工作，軟件業(yè)的崛起為擴大當(dāng)?shù)鼗A(chǔ)性創(chuàng)業(yè)提供了機會。該部門最初啟動的資本相當(dāng)?shù)?，尤其是?guī)模效益不是特別明顯的服務(wù)企業(yè)。因此，進入門檻較低。這幫助了有技術(shù)的專業(yè)人

85、才依靠自己創(chuàng)業(yè)。當(dāng)今許多領(lǐng)先的軟件企業(yè)都由第一代企業(yè)家創(chuàng)辦，在眾多的企業(yè)中，Infosys, Satyam, Mastek, Silverline和Polaris，是由軟件專家和工程師用較少的儲蓄和貸款開始起家。也是在較低的水平，用相對較少的專業(yè)人才為企業(yè)的發(fā)展提供了機會。對印度軟件和服務(wù)行業(yè)的小企業(yè)或非正規(guī)部門的研究顯示，揭示了以低成本起家的企業(yè)有多少有價值的創(chuàng)業(yè)機會存在。連這樣的小規(guī)模企業(yè)也一直在發(fā)展，說明他們的發(fā)展不會停留很長時間

86、（Kumar 2000）。</p><p><b>　　3.扭轉(zhuǎn)人才外流</b></p><p>　　全國軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)的迅速崛起，也有助于該國通過創(chuàng)造就業(yè)機會來減少人才外流的程度，這種趨勢也得到了有效的風(fēng)險資本的支持來實現(xiàn)新的想法。該軟件業(yè)行業(yè)的崛起也促使了一些非印第安居民返回該國從事他們的軟件事業(yè)。據(jù)估計，專業(yè)人員的回歸率從1991年的增加百分之二，到了8世紀(jì)90年代末

87、，增加至百分之十。有一些高級軟件人才回到印度成立他們自己的公司。很顯然，僅僅海得拉巴，回國的軟件專家大約設(shè)定了有100家公司(Kumar，2001)。此外，印度軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)的出口取向受益于工作在美國多民族企業(yè)(MNEs)中的非印第安居民工程師的一個堅固數(shù)字的出現(xiàn)。此外，印度軟件業(yè)出口導(dǎo)向得益于有大量的非印度居民的工程師在美國的跨國公司工作。經(jīng)Lateef (1997) 和Aroraet al. (2000) 觀察，他們中有些人在聯(lián)系美國的買

88、家和印度的潛在供應(yīng)商之間發(fā)揮了重要的作用，在軟件行業(yè)的非印度居民在美國開發(fā)他們的操作的軟件投入到子公司，這些措施包括Mastech的子公司，哥倫比亞廣播公司附屬公司和其他一些的投資公司。</p><p><b>　　4.促進資本流入</b></p><p>　　該軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)的發(fā)展導(dǎo)致了國家三種形式的資本流動：外國在境外跨國公司及其子公司和印度合資企業(yè)（外資）的直接投資。

89、外國機構(gòu)投資（境外機構(gòu)投資者）在印度軟件企業(yè)通過購買股票和國外的印度軟件公司募集資金。據(jù)估計，跨國公司子公司的軟件和服務(wù)出口占23%，業(yè)務(wù)流程外包占出口總額26%。</p><p>　　三、印度軟件和服務(wù)出口的增長：政府的干預(yù)作用</p><p>　　它清楚地表明了在印度出口為導(dǎo)向的軟件和相關(guān)服務(wù)產(chǎn)業(yè)的興起已經(jīng)成為了一個有趣的發(fā)展，它的興起，是繼一定數(shù)量有價值的發(fā)展后的結(jié)果。有些觀察員爭辯

90、說，印度在軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)的成功是國家忽視了良性狀態(tài)以及它在市場上自由發(fā)揮的結(jié)果（Arora，2000）。</p><p>　　在此主要討論的是印度軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)的成功主要歸因于國家政府投資累積，不僅建設(shè)了一個合格的人力資源供應(yīng)基地，而且也建設(shè)了能力發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施基地。</p><p>　　在60年代和70年代，政府通過出臺一系列積極的政策和制度的為印度軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)的興起奠定基礎(chǔ)(Kumar and Jos

91、eph, 2004)。通過對前面政策和制度的支持，1984年的計算機政策推動了軟件行業(yè)的發(fā)展。例如，這項政策要求在電子系(DOE)下面成立一個獨立的軟件開發(fā)促進會（SDPA）。該軟件開發(fā)的進口所需的投入變得更為寬松。該政策強調(diào)指出：“從長遠看來，有效的軟件出口促銷在一個持續(xù)的基礎(chǔ)上可以起促進作用，如果僅是作為一個整體的軟件促銷涵蓋，包括進口替代在內(nèi)的出口和內(nèi)部需求，同時制定了軟件開發(fā)與該硬件開發(fā)和系統(tǒng)工程一體化的計劃（印度政府，1985

92、年）。</p><p>　　90年代初，隨著經(jīng)濟改革的開始，財政部作出的評估表明，除了所有產(chǎn)業(yè)往出口市場方向的一般取向之外，印度的比較優(yōu)勢存在于在軟件產(chǎn)業(yè)而不是硬件產(chǎn)業(yè)。因此，一個重要的舉措就是促進軟件出口。于是，新的政策措施已經(jīng)啟動，其中有以下幾方面：（一）對外國公司的進入障礙;（二）對外國技術(shù)的轉(zhuǎn)讓限制;（三）對私營部門決策的參與（四）通過股權(quán)和風(fēng)險資本規(guī)定軟件開發(fā)經(jīng)費的負擔(dān);（五）采取措施，提供更快，更便宜

93、的數(shù)據(jù)通信設(shè)施;（六）減少并合理化稅收，補貼和關(guān)稅（Narayanamurthy，2000）。</p><p><b>　　四、結(jié)論性意見</b></p><p>　　過去十年期間，印度的軟件和服務(wù)部門的出口業(yè)績是前所未有的，它的軟件和服務(wù)產(chǎn)業(yè)的出口額占總出口額的20%，占國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值的2.6%。結(jié)果，由于印度的軟件和服務(wù)出口的60%是以離岸服務(wù)的形式，從而出現(xiàn)了現(xiàn)場

94、服務(wù)份額明顯下降的趨勢。此外，印度的軟件業(yè)正在向產(chǎn)業(yè)鏈發(fā)展，盡管速度緩慢。但該軟件和相關(guān)服務(wù)行業(yè)的興起，也帶來了就業(yè)機會以及其他有利的外部因素。然而，該行業(yè)的特點是空間密集度高和軟件出口活動的聚集，同其它經(jīng)濟部門的聯(lián)系有限。事實上，受益更多的不是IT生產(chǎn)商而是用戶（IMF,2001）。</p><p>　　雖然有人認為，印度在軟件及相關(guān)服務(wù)貿(mào)易的成功是國家忽視了良性狀態(tài)的結(jié)果，該文件表明，這種結(jié)果不僅是因為他們隱

95、瞞的要超過他們透露的，而且和處于這種發(fā)展水平中關(guān)系不大。因為市場化已在許多發(fā)展中國家占很重要的地位，遂取得了有限的成功。而印度的成功是主要是過去五十年的努力，從各國吸收累積的經(jīng)驗也有其局限性。發(fā)展中國家致力于發(fā)展軟件和服務(wù)部門可以從印度的經(jīng)驗中學(xué)到很多東西。一般情況下，發(fā)展中國家可以采取自由貿(mào)易和投資政策。它們難以承擔(dān)忽視建設(shè)國家創(chuàng)新體系，在擁有技能和技術(shù)密集型行業(yè)的建設(shè)能力的前提下，例如軟件和服務(wù)。印度的經(jīng)驗往往表明，糟糕的政策可以減