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1、<p>  本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)</p><p><b>  外文翻譯</b></p><p>  外文題目: Challenges to achieving a successful transition to a low </p><p>  carbon economy in South Africa: examples

2、from poor </p><p>  urban communities </p><p>  出 處: Springer Science Business Media </p><p>  作 者: Thuli N. Mdluli &a

3、mp; Coleen H. Vogel </p><p><b>  Abstract</b></p><p>  South Africa faces several development challenges including those linked to climate change. Energy usage in S

4、outh Africa, for example, is already constrained because of a range of development challenges (the dependence on cheap coal as a heating source; energy availability; access; affordability of alternative energy sources; a

5、nd a range of health impacts, including air pollution). Notwithstanding calls for a transition to a low carbon economy, there have been few, recent assessments in South Af</p><p><b>  Keywords </b&g

6、t;</p><p>  Domestic coal combustion . Energy-use patterns .</p><p>  Introduction</p><p>  Climate change poses many challenges to a variety of sectors such as water, energy, and

7、 agriculture (IPCC 2007) in Africa and the southern African region, including issues related to adaptation and mitigation (IPCC 2007). Whereas significant attention is focussed on mitigation, particularly those efforts l

8、inked to energy production, relatively few assessments in the energy sector focus on adaptation issues and on what may be termed the ‘softer side’ of energy use and uptake (e.g. improved unders</p><p>  Sout

9、h Africa’s economy is energy intensive (Winkler 2006). Several months after the research for this paper was undertaken, for example, country-wide rolling energy ‘blackouts’ occurred (e.g. in the early months of 2008), pr

10、ofiling energy as a development concern in the country. Faced with the combined challenges of climate change and energy, the government of South Africa has proposed several strategies including alternative energy sources

11、 to reduce the heavy dependence on domestic coal combust</p><p>  Despite this activity, we argue in this paper, that few efforts to understand the implication of such endeavours, including estimations of th

12、e costs (both financial and social), particularly at the local level, have been undertaken arguably ‘where the rubber hits the road’ (Winkler 2009). In an attempt to address some of these concerns, we use the concept of

13、the ‘energy ladder’ to examine energy usage in two townships settings in South Africa, namely Doornkop and Kwaguqa. This investigation show</p><p>  Beyond pollution and carbon estimations—concepts on energy

14、 use at the household level</p><p>  Several international and local assessments have highlighted critical pollution concerns associated with domestic energy use. The National ResearchDefence Council (NRDC)

15、(NRDC 2004) and World Health Organisation (WHO) (WHO 2004, 2005), for example, have established a link between air pollution, human health and the environment with polluted air posing significant health risks to users (B

16、urnett 1997; Doppegieter et al. 1998; Metzner 2003). Indoor smoke released from the combustion of solid fuels,</p><p>  In southern Africa, more specifically in South Africa, air pollution and its consequenc

17、es have also been a key focus, with numerous valuable regional air pollution assessments undertaken (e.g. Terblanche et al. 1994; Swap et al. 2003). In South Africa, the combustion of fossil fuels (coal and petroleum) co

18、ntributes significantly to the high levels of air pollution in the country and the region (Scorgie et al. 2003a). Coal comprises around 70% of South Africa’s primary energy (Winkler and Marquar</p><p>  Ther

19、e are few, recent, place-based assessments of why such energy-use behaviours persist. Various concepts of energy use are explored in an attempt to ‘frame’ and help assess the findings noted here. While the findings are n

20、ot necessarily new, they underscore the persistence of energy-use behaviours despite significant efforts to transition to alternative energy scenarios. Household energy is defined as energy consumed by people in their ho

21、mes for cooking, space and water heating, lighting and r</p><p>  A brief review of the energy context in South Africa</p><p>  In 2004, 70% of South Africa’s primary energy was estimated to be

22、derived from coal (Winkler and Marquard 2009) with approximately 92% of electricity power generation coming from coal-fired power stations (DME 2003, 2004; Winkler and Marquard 2009). Domestic coal combustion has also ha

23、d deep historical roots in South Africa that can be traced back to the apartheid era characterised by inequitable distribution of resources including energy (ANC 1994; ERC 2004). Several backlogs in the distributio</p

24、><p>  After 1994, the government set out to reduce this inequitable distribution of energy through what is termed the Energisation Programme in the White Paper on Energy and other related policies (Bekker et a

25、l. 2008; DME 1998, 2003; for a good review see also Winkler 2009). Though South Africa can boast of success stories of electrification in Africa, with records of 80% electrification in some urban areas (Spalding-Fecher 2

26、002), people continue to use traditional fuels (such as coal) in their househ</p><p>  Some early qualitative studies of the impacts of electrification have been undertaken to assess what has indeed occurred

27、 (e.g. Annecke 1999; Bank et al. 1996). A longitudinal study, for example, in Gauteng tried to assess patterns in fuel use after electrification (Palmer 1999). A shift in fuel use (from fuel to greater use of electricity

28、) was found not to be immediate, taking in some cases five years to complete (Spalding-Fecher and Matibe 2003). Similarly, other studies have also shown that co</p><p>  The question that arises then is why

29、does domestic coal combustion persist as a dominant energy source? Terblanche et al. (1993) note that the persistence of domestic coal combustion is due to a lack of resources to create an infrastructure for a complete t

30、ransition to electricity and the lack of money to maintain the system. Others suggest that domestic coal combustion persists because township households do not have electric appliances (Hoets 1998) while some have attemp

31、ted to show that electr</p><p>  Energy usage in townships in South Africa</p><p>  Two townships located in the Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces, South Africa, were selected for examination. Th

32、ese are both representative of high coal-use areas in the country (Spalding-Fecher 2005). These townships are located in Soweto (Doornkop) and Witbank (KwaGuqa) and are also representative of residents in two large urban

33、 areas that although poor, are nonetheless located in wider, middle-income settings. As highlighted above, other studies pertaining to domestic coal combustion have also </p><p>  Various factors shaping bot

34、h access and use of energy in the two townships were probed including possible economic reasons explaining preferred coal usage; preferred use of energy source (e.g. single source, such as coal, versus multiple energy so

35、urces); the role of access and location (e.g. proximity to coal fields, coal-traders); the role of perceptions, including awareness of the health implications coupled to the use of certain energy sources and other influe

36、nces on energy use (e.g. social f</p><p>  Conclusion</p><p>  In this paper we have tried to update some of the existing assessments on energy-use behaviour by undertaking surveys focussing on

37、two township areas in South Africa. The need for these updates was driven, in part, by the emerging climate change concerns that have largely been focussed on mitigation issues and long-term energy mitigation scenarios.

38、Few, however, have tried to extend the earlier work on households and energy demand in SouthAfrica by examining energy usage in very changing, develo</p><p>  A number of energy practices thus emerge, some n

39、ot that new, but nonetheless confirm earlier assessments. First, energy sources of choice are not always accessible either because they are unavailable or people cannot afford them (Mehlwana and Qase 1996). Electricity i

40、s inaccessible to township households who cannot afford to use it and to those that are not yet electrified. In this study, electricity was found to be underutilised in many township households because it is too expensiv

41、e for people</p><p>  In earlier assessments there was lack of extensive electricity supply in township areas and few cases that could show whether people were beginning to change their ways of heating and c

42、ooking (Terblanche et al. 1994). During the course of this study, most households in poorer residential areas already had electric appliances. The cost of enabling sustainable use of the appliances, however, was too proh

43、ibitive. Households did not use the appliances because of low incomes and the inability to pay </p><p>  Second, simple notions of energy use (e.g. energy ladders), while initially useful require more nuance

44、d information and assessment. Energy-use behaviours are not static and cannot be framed only according to income levels. As others have noted, a linear transition of use of fuel is not a common and universal explanation

45、for energy-use behaviour (e.g.Terblanche et al. 1994; Bruce 2002). This study therefore concurs with a call for an expanded use of the concept of the energy ladder, acknowledging</p><p>  Finally, this study

46、 illustrates that more effective ways of capturing the dynamic complexity of energy-use behavior are needed particularly for those that emerge in the inter-section between development, climate change (mitigation and adap

47、tation) and poverty alleviation.</p><p><b>  譯 文:</b></p><p>  對南非低碳經(jīng)濟成功轉(zhuǎn)型的挑戰(zhàn):貧窮的都市社區(qū)</p><p><b>  摘 要</b></p><p>  南非面臨著一些發(fā)展挑戰(zhàn),包括氣候變化。能源的使用已經(jīng)

48、被迫成為發(fā)展的新挑戰(zhàn)(當做暖氣來源的廉價煤被用來通路及其他可能能源的來源,但是對人類健康造成沖擊,包括空氣污染)。對低碳經(jīng)濟的成功轉(zhuǎn)型,目前全世界還很少。最近,南非的關(guān)于聯(lián)合費用的經(jīng)濟評估就進行了這樣的轉(zhuǎn)型,特別是在利用很多方法進行能源利用的貧窮社區(qū)。本文致力于提出一些能源使用方式,包括促使消費者在資源匱乏區(qū)域如何進行能源的選擇和使用。在兩個小鎮(zhèn)區(qū)域:Doornkop和Kwaguqa在用電還是繼續(xù)燒煤方面進行了定性的數(shù)據(jù)分析,80%左右

49、的家庭選擇使用煤炭進行家庭供暖和烹調(diào),其他活動使用多種燃料來源。雖然國內(nèi)煤炭貧瘠,但是煤炭的備用性和社會可接受性與其他能源一起不能被低估。因此,本文突出強調(diào)在氣候變化上足以支撐南非的能源使用的轉(zhuǎn)型,以緩和和改進能源部門對于能源的適應(yīng)。</p><p>  關(guān)鍵詞:國內(nèi)煤炭燃燒 能源使用方式 </p><p><b>  一、介紹</b></p>&l

50、t;p>  在非洲大部分南部地區(qū),氣候變化使得許多部門面臨挑戰(zhàn),例如水利、能源、農(nóng)業(yè)等,以及一系列聯(lián)系的問題。然而,其中重大的問題卻沒有受到極大關(guān)注,尤其是那些鏈接能源生產(chǎn)的行業(yè),那些相對較少的能量評估領(lǐng)域是氣候適應(yīng)性問題和被稱為“能源消耗和吸收的溫柔一面”(如雙方的經(jīng)濟和社會基礎(chǔ)的能源使用成本提高認識)的能源部門做重點評估。例如適應(yīng),正在推行的一種方式,以減少自然和人類社會對氣候變化的影響預(yù)期和包括預(yù)期、公共和計劃的適應(yīng)。此外,

51、需要更多關(guān)注的是,在非洲南部,應(yīng)試圖確定和理解面臨的問題與障礙,以便更好更有效的進行能源燃料的使用。在少數(shù)南非地區(qū),利用評估行為因素解釋那些長期的、復(fù)雜的能源使用行為。有人甚至認為,在“硬性問題的對焦卻是可能導致偏見,行為的潛在關(guān)鍵促進適應(yīng)和其他努力(例如能源的使用行為和政策措施等)。</p><p>  南非的經(jīng)濟是能源密集型(溫克勒2006年),本文在此基礎(chǔ)上進行了幾個月的研究,例如,在全國范圍內(nèi)滾動能源‘停

52、電’發(fā)生(如在2008年年初),剖析作為國家能源發(fā)展的關(guān)注。對于面臨的氣候變化和能源的綜合挑戰(zhàn),南非政府提出一些策略,包括替代能源以減少對國內(nèi)煤炭燃燒的嚴重依賴(布里頓1998;Hoets 1998;Surridge 2004年溫克勒和馬奎德2009年)。最近,焦點也擴大到包括能源資源問題,發(fā)展問題以及能源和氣候變化主題(《聯(lián)合國氣候變化框架公約》2000年)(如長期減緩情景,LTMS1,溫克勒2009年,溫克勒和馬奎德2009;國家氣

53、候變化應(yīng)對策略,2004b efforts-DEAT國家能源效率,根據(jù)斯泰爾斯2006年的一部分,和作為氣候變化DEAT 2004a的聯(lián)合國氣候變化框架公約)的國家信息通報評估。在南非,碳信息披露項目在約翰內(nèi)斯堡頂尖的證券交易所公開了其碳減排努力和戰(zhàn)略。(例如2007年和2008年的CDP)商業(yè)界更多地參與進來,努力從事碳交易和碳資源的搜尋。</p><p>  盡管進行這樣的研究,本文仍認為,對能源使用的內(nèi)涵評

54、估缺乏了解,包括成本(包括財政和社會)的評估,特別是在地方一級,可以說‘已經(jīng)進行了,卻還在橡膠打路’(溫克勒2009年)。為了解決其中一些問題,我們使用‘能量階梯’的概念,研究能源在南非的兩個鄉(xiāng)Doornkop和Kwaguqa的使用情況。這種類型的調(diào)查早先也有人進行過(范法蓮等人,1993;馬塞拉等人,2000;溫克勒等人,2000),此次調(diào)查主要研究城鎮(zhèn)居民家庭是電氣化生活,還是仍繼續(xù)燃燒煤炭,探討為什么一些能源用戶仍舊面臨能源使用的

55、挑戰(zhàn)及其制約因素。這次研究擴展了觀點的社會層面,包括對能源消耗(如溫克勒2009年)影響。如此詳細的評估,我們認為,連接至其他宏觀經(jīng)濟的一系列挑戰(zhàn),確實可能提供額外的細微差異,從而被認為是一系列復(fù)雜問題所實現(xiàn)的一個低能量的經(jīng)濟問題。更廣泛的宏觀問題,而關(guān)鍵的,不是檢查(例如什么類型的能量轉(zhuǎn)換和途徑?菲舍爾科瓦爾斯基和Haberl(2007年)和溫克勒和Marquard(2009)和LTMS)。雖然該領(lǐng)域的研究有點陳舊,我們相信,這項研究

56、成果所突出的可持續(xù)發(fā)展問題,值得進一步的關(guān)注。 二、能源概念中</p><p>  在南非,空氣污染的后果也非常嚴重。研究者在眾多地區(qū)對空氣污染的重點進行評估(如Terblanche等,1994;Swap 等,2003)。在南非,煤和石油等化石燃料的燃燒加重了空氣污染水平。大約70%的煤炭是南非的初級能源。南非的煤炭生產(chǎn),只有2%用于家庭取暖和做飯等。受大氣條件惡化的影響,這種廉價的煤炭在人口稠密地區(qū)持續(xù)

57、的使用,令人關(guān)注。在各鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn),煤炭燃燒仍然是室內(nèi)空氣污染和環(huán)境的重要來源(Annegarn and Sithole 1997;Annegarn等人1998;Barnes 2005年,WHO 2005年)。更重要的是,這種燃燒直接影響使用人群的健康(Scorgie等, 2001年)。</p><p>  最近,地區(qū)上很少有對為什么這樣的低效率的能源使用行為持續(xù)存在進行評估。在能源使用的各種概念中,研究者試圖探索原因,

58、并幫助評估指出結(jié)果。雖然結(jié)果不一定是新的,但卻通過能源使用的行為,為替代能源過渡方案的提出作了重大努力。家庭能源的定義是人們所消耗的用于烹飪,房間,開水,照明及娛樂活動(Terblanche等,1994)的能量。家庭能源是低成本的能源,通常燃燒效率低下,卻導致很多方面的不利影響(Terblanche等,1995年)。 三、南非能源使用的簡要回顧</p><p>  2004年,南非70%的主要能源是煤炭(

59、溫克勒和馬奎德 2009),約92%的電力來自燃煤發(fā)電廠。國內(nèi)煤炭的燃燒也有深厚的歷史根源,可以追溯到種族隔離時代的不公平的資源分配。在電力供應(yīng)等服務(wù),煤炭作為一種廉價的能源來源,成為主要的能源來源供鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)使用。</p><p>  1994年以后,政府開始著手減低能源分配不公的現(xiàn)象的發(fā)生,通過能源白皮書計劃和其他相關(guān)政策(Bekker等人通電工程計劃2008年;溫克勒2009年)。在某些市區(qū),人們繼續(xù)使用煤炭作為

60、燃料(斯伯丁- Fecher 2002年;Malzbender和Kamoto 2005)。</p><p>  研究者對早期的電氣化的使用對能源消耗造成的一些影響進行了定性研究,從而確立造成了什么影響(例如Annecke 1999)。一項縱向研究,試圖在豪登地區(qū),對燃料電氣化使用(帕爾默1999年)的模式進行評估,發(fā)現(xiàn)從燃料的使用轉(zhuǎn)變到更高效率的利用電力的效果并不能立竿見影,在某些情況下,需要五年的時間來完成(S

61、palding-Fecher和Matibe 2003)。同樣,其他研究也表明,煤燃燒后的家庭電氣化仍然存在(Hoets 1998;Qase等,2000;Mdluli等,2003)。</p><p>  為什么國內(nèi)煤炭燃燒堅持作為主要能量來源?Terblanche等(1993)指出,國內(nèi)煤炭燃燒的持續(xù)存在是由于缺乏資源和資金,無法創(chuàng)造一個完整的轉(zhuǎn)換為電能以維持系統(tǒng)正常運行的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施。國內(nèi)其他報告認為,國內(nèi)煤炭燃燒持

62、續(xù)是因為鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)家庭沒有使用電器(Hoets 1998年),這些報告又試圖表明,電力太貴了,城鎮(zhèn)居民家庭無力承擔(溫克勒等,2000,2009;Scorgie等人,2001年)。鑒于這種燃料的使用,選擇在兩個鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)地區(qū),目的是提供一些最新的鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)地區(qū)能源的行為的數(shù)據(jù)。 四、南非鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)的能源消耗 此次調(diào)查對象是是南非的兩個鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn),豪登省和姆普馬蘭加。這些都是在南非地區(qū)煤炭高使用的代表(斯伯丁- Fecher 2005),都位于索韋托(

63、杜倫科普)和威特班克(KwaGuqa),也代表兩個大型的居民人數(shù),雖然窮,但仍然在擴大。如上所述,與國內(nèi)煤炭燃燒有關(guān)的其他研究還強調(diào)從基線進行調(diào)查(Annegarn和西托萊1997;Annegarn等人1998;Scorgie等人,2003年)。</p><p>  此次調(diào)查研究對獲取和利用能源的兩個鄉(xiāng)的各種因素進行了探討,包括煤炭使用過程中可能出現(xiàn)的經(jīng)濟原因解釋,使用的能源(單一來源---煤炭或多個能源)的來源

64、和選址(如靠近煤場,煤貿(mào)易商),包括對其他影響能源和能源使用額因素(如社會因素)的認識。 五、結(jié)論</p><p>  在本文中,我們試圖通過開展調(diào)查,以更新現(xiàn)有的關(guān)于南非的兩個鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)在能源領(lǐng)域的使用行為上的一些評估。對這些需要更新的驅(qū)動,在很大程度上緩解了部分由新興氣候變化所帶來的問題和能源減災(zāi)方案的重點關(guān)注。然而卻很少有人試圖作在經(jīng)濟發(fā)展和環(huán)境對家庭的能源使用和需求的前期工作,通過對能源需求的變化,了解

65、能源利用的發(fā)展和經(jīng)濟的關(guān)系。本文進一步突出發(fā)展的隱藏問題,主要是減緩污染方面的研究。</p><p>  許多能源實踐方面的研究并沒有創(chuàng)新,而是在確認前人研究的基礎(chǔ)上做些總結(jié)。首先,能源來源的選擇和獲取并不容易(Mehlwana和Qase 1996年)。很多非洲南部的鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)居民家庭尚未通電。在這項研究中,認為在許多城鎮(zhèn)居民家庭沒有充分利用電力,因為它太昂貴,鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)為低收入或貧困地區(qū)(Mehlwana和Qase 199

66、6年; Scorgie等人,2001年;斯伯丁, 2005年),根本支付不起。</p><p>  早期的評估顯示,缺少廣泛的電力供應(yīng)的鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)區(qū)域人們是否開始改變他們?nèi)∨妥鲲埖姆绞剑═erblanche等,1994)。在本研究過程中,貧困地區(qū)的大多數(shù)家庭已經(jīng)使用了電器,不過,過于昂貴。未利用電器的家庭因為收入較低,無力支付服務(wù)設(shè)備。Mehlwana和Qase(1996)指出,人們對家電的使用取決于他們是否能夠買得

67、起電器,或至少購買他們所需要的燃料。大多數(shù)家庭能買得起設(shè)備,但無法負擔購買能永續(xù)利用電器的電力單位。</p><p>  此外,能源使用(如能源階梯)的簡單的概念,雖然最初需要更多有用信息和評估。但能源使用行為不是一成不變的,不能只根據(jù)擬定的收入水平來判定。正如其他人指出的那樣,燃料使用過渡并不是有效的能源使用行為(egTerblanche等1994;布魯斯2002年)。因此,本研究確立了一項對能源階梯的概念的擴

68、大使用,并確認其局限性。在這項研究中,當?shù)鼐用窀匾暤氖悄軌蚴褂玫绞裁茨茉矗皇潜旧硖峁┑哪芰縼碓?。因此,?lián)系到需要的能源至關(guān)重要。同時,研究也表明,各種社會和文化因素的差異使能源的行為更加復(fù)雜。社會網(wǎng)絡(luò)和其他社會實踐的作用也影響能源的使用,因此需要求更詳細,更有說服力的例子來證明。</p><p>  最后,本文研究表明,在發(fā)展過程中捕捉到能源使用行為的動態(tài)復(fù)雜性,如氣候變化(減緩和適應(yīng))的界定是南非提高能源

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