世界貿(mào)易和國際貿(mào)易外文文獻(xiàn)及中文翻譯

1、<p>　　World Trade and International Trade </p><p>　　In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people hav

2、e developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved.</p><p>　　For example, the Un

3、ited States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow cof

4、fee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded i

5、tem for item, such as one automobile for </p><p>　　Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commoditi

6、es that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do no

7、t have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them.</p><p>　　Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its n

8、eeds. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.</p><p>　　Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than

9、other countries. Japan has been able to export large quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries. It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan

10、 than to produce them domestically. According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives a comparative advantage. It should also buy and import what it needs from those countrie

11、s</p><p>　　Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style. Even though the United States produces more automobiles than any other country, it still imports large numbers of autos from Germ

12、any, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States.</p><p>　　For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity. When nations export mor

13、e than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance of trade. When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists. Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures

14、them of the means to buy necessary imports.International trade is the exchange of goods and services produced in one country for goods and services produced in another coun</p><p>　　The distribution lf natur

15、al resources around the world is somewhat haphazard: some nations possess natural deposits in excess of their own requirements while other nations have none. For example, Britain has large reserves of coal but lacks many

16、 minerals such as nickel, copper, aluminum etc, whereas the Arab states have vast oil deposits but little else. In the cultivation of natural products climates whereas others, such as citrus fruits, require a Mediterrane

17、an climate. Moreover, some nations </p><p>　　With the development of manufacturing and technology, there arose another incentive for nations to exchange their products. It was found that it made economic sen

18、se for a nation to specialize in certain activities and produce those goods for which it had the most advantages, and to exchange those goods for the products of other nations which and advantages in different fields. Th

19、is trade is based on the principle of comparative advantage.</p><p>　　The theory of comparative advantage, also called the comparative cost theory, was developed by David Ricardo, and other economists in the

20、 nineteenth century. It points out that trade between countries can be profitable for all, even if one of the countries can produce every commodity more cheaply. As long as there are minor, relative differences in the ef

21、ficiency of producing a commodity even the poof country can have a comparative advantage in producing it. The paradox is best illustrated by th</p><p>　　This principle is the basis of specialization into tra

22、des and occupations. At the same time, complete specialization may never occur even when it is economically advantageous. For strategic or domestic reasons, a country may continue to produce goods for which it does not h

23、ave an advantage. The benefits lf specialization may also be affecting by transport costs: goods and raw materials have to be transported around the world and the cost of the transport narrows the limits between which it

24、 will </p><p>　　In addition to visible trade, which involves the import and export lf goods and merchandise, there is also invisible trade, which involves the exchange of services between nations.</p>

25、<p>　　Nations such as Greece and Norway have large marine fleets and provide transportation service. This is a kind of invisible trade. When an exporter arranges shipment, he rents space in the cargo compartment or

26、 a ship.</p><p>　　The prudent exporter purchases insurance for his cargo’s voyage. While at sea, a cargo is vulnerable to many dangers. Thus, insurance is another service in which some nations specialize. Gr

27、eat Britain, because of the development of Lloyd’s of London, is a leading exporter of this service, earning fees for insuring other nations’ foreign trade.</p><p>　　Some nations possess little in the way of

28、 exporter commodities or manufactured goods, but they have a mild and sunny climate. During the winter, the Bahamas attract large numbers of countries, who spend money for hotel accommodations, meals, taxis, and so on. T

29、ourism, therefore, is another form of invisible trade.</p><p>　　Invisible trade can be as important to some nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations as th

30、e export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations earn money to buy necessities.</p><p>　　International trade today little resembles European commerce as it existed between the

31、 16th century and the 19th century. Trade in earlier times was conducted largely between a mother country and its colonies. It was conducted according to strict mercantilist principles. The colonies were supposed to supp

32、ly the mother country with raw materials, and they were expected to buy all finished goods from the mother country. Other forms of trade were forbidden to the colonies, but many of them evaded t</p><p>　　A r

33、esult of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 18th century, was the transformation of trade from a colonial exchange into a many sided international institution. Cottage industries gave way to mass pr

34、oduction in factories. Railroads and steamships lowered the cost of transportation at the same time that new markets were being sought for the expanding output of goods.</p><p>　　The Industrial Revolution al

35、so brought an end to mercantilist policies. The laissez-faire attitudes that emerged in their stead permitted businessmen to manufacture what they pleased and to trade freely with other nations. Trade was also stimulated

36、 by the growth of banking facilities, insurance companies, and improved commercial shipping and communications.</p><p>　　The repeal of the Corn Laws by Great Britain in 1846 ended Britain’s longstanding poli

37、cy of protectionism. During the 19th century, many European nations made commercial agreements with each other easing their tariff rates. Lower tariffs and the growth of population and industry caused trade to soar in th

38、e 19th century.</p><p>　　In the 20th century two world wars and a major depression caused severe disturbances in international trade. Nations, sensing a threat to their domestic economies, sought to protect

39、themselves from further disturbances by erecting various barriers to trade.</p><p>　　The situation became even worse after Great Britain abandoned the gold standard. The nations that were closely related to

40、Britain, including most of the members of the Commonwealth of gold standard. As the means of making international payments broke down and trade restrictions increased, some countries had to resort to barter to obtain for

41、eign goods.</p><p>　　International trade was in such severe straits during the depression that a World Economic Conference was held in 1933. This conference, however, was unable to halt a rash of currency de

42、valuations, tariff increases, and quota arrangements.</p><p>　　In 1934, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull persuaded Congress to pass the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act. This law authorized the President

43、to negotiate tariff cuts with other nations. The Reciprocal Trade Act provided for protection of U.S. industries in the event foreign imports increased to such a degree that U.S. businesses were injured. This protection

44、included peril point and escape clauses under which tariff cuts could by refused of rescinded if a U.S. industry suffered economic hards</p><p>　　Shortly before the end of World War Ⅱ, members of the United

45、Nations met at Bratton Woods, N.H. to discuss ways of reducing the financial barriers to international trade. The International Monetary Fund was established as a result of the conference. The fund was designed to encour

46、age the growth of international trade by stabilizing currencies and their rate of foreign exchange.</p><p>　　In the early postwar period, more than 20 nations met in Geneva, Switzerland, to negotiate tariff

47、reductions. When any two nations reached an agreement to reduce tariffs on a product, the benefits were extended to all participating nations. This was an application of the so-called most favored nation clause.</p>

48、;<p>　　The Geneva tariff agreements were written into the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT also established standards for the conduct of international trade. Fox example, the agreement prohibits

49、 nations from placing quotas of limits on imports, except under very special circumstances.</p><p>　　After World War Ⅱ a number of free trade areas were formed to solve trade problems on a regional basis. Ta

50、riffs on goods moving within these areas were to be abolished. Some of the groups also erected a single tariff on the goods of outsiders coming into their common area. Such groups are called customs unions. The goal of a

51、ll trade blocs was to merge small political units into large geographic entities in which goods could be freely manufactured and sold. A large market area greatly stimulates </p><p><b>　　世界貿(mào)易和國際貿(mào)易</

52、b></p><p>　　在當(dāng)今復(fù)雜的經(jīng)濟世界個人和國家都不是自給自足。 國家有利用不同的經(jīng)濟資源，人們開發(fā)了不同的技能。 這是世界貿(mào)易和經(jīng)濟活動的基礎(chǔ)。 此貿(mào)易和活動中，導(dǎo)致的國際金融和銀行已經(jīng)演化。</p><p>　　例如，美國是主要使用者的咖啡，但它并沒有增加任何氣候或自己。 因此，美國必須引進(jìn)高效種植咖啡的國家 (如巴西、 哥倫比亞、 危地馬拉) 咖啡。 在另一方面，美國有

53、大型工廠能生產(chǎn)多種化工和，可以出售給需要它們的國家的飛機等的貨物。 如果國家交易如為 10000 袋咖啡，一個汽車的項的項外貿(mào)會非常麻煩和制約。 如此的即無錢交換的商品貿(mào)易的口味而不是美國用于它的銷售支付收到錢。 它為巴西咖啡，巴西可以隨后使用。反過來可以買紡織品，然后可以買到從美國來的煙草，買澳大利亞的羊毛用美元支付。</p><p>　　外貿(mào)，各國之間的商品交換，原因是很多地方都需要很多不同的商品。首先，沒有

54、一個國家的商品能滿足國家本身的所有需要，各種原料分散在世界各地，大型銅礦分布在秘魯和扎伊爾，南非生產(chǎn)鉆石，中東石油資源豐富，自己國界內(nèi)部不能生產(chǎn)的資源，必須向生產(chǎn)這些資源的國家購買。</p><p>　　對外貿(mào)易的發(fā)生是因為每個國家沒有足夠的能力生產(chǎn)所有滿足本國需要的產(chǎn)品，雖然美國是主要的糖生產(chǎn)國，但是其國內(nèi)消耗遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過其生產(chǎn)能力，因此其必須進(jìn)口。</p><p>　　第三，一個國家可以賣

55、一個比其他國家較低的成本的一些項目。日本已經(jīng)能夠出口收音和電視機，因為它可以比其他國家更有效的大量生產(chǎn)它們。美國從日本購買比在國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)這些便宜。根據(jù)經(jīng)濟理論，日本應(yīng)該生產(chǎn)和出口的是從它派生的一個比較優(yōu)勢的項目，還應(yīng)該購買那些在本國生產(chǎn)成本比其他國家高的產(chǎn)品。</p><p>　　最后，對外貿(mào)易需要那些創(chuàng)新的產(chǎn)品，盡管美國是世界上最大的汽車生產(chǎn)國，但是仍需要從德國、日本、瑞典進(jìn)口大量汽車，主要是為了滿足本國的市場需

56、要。</p><p>　　對于大多數(shù)國家，出口和進(jìn)口是最重要的國際活動。當(dāng)國家的出口多于進(jìn)口，這是一種貿(mào)易順差，當(dāng)進(jìn)口多于出口，是貿(mào)易逆差。聯(lián)合國試圖保持良好的貿(mào)易平衡，保證用必要的手段來購買他們需要進(jìn)口的貨物，在一個國家生產(chǎn)的商品和服務(wù)在與另一個國家生產(chǎn)服務(wù)的交流。它有幾個原因。</p><p>　　分布在世界各地的天然資源，很不平衡，在一些國家有些資源擁有過多，而其他礦藏相對較少，甚至

57、沒有。例如，英國煤炭儲量很大，但是缺乏如鎳，銅，鋁等多種礦物質(zhì)，而阿拉伯國家有豐富的石油儲量，但其他資源幾乎沒有。在自然生物方面，如柑橘類水果，適合在地中海氣候地區(qū)種植，此外，一些國家生產(chǎn)的某種產(chǎn)品不能滿足本國的需要，例如，英國的小麥。這是貿(mào)易發(fā)生的原因之一。</p><p>　　隨著制造技術(shù)的發(fā)展，因而產(chǎn)生了另一個國家鼓勵，交流他們的產(chǎn)品。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)，它使一個國家的經(jīng)濟在一定意義上，專門生產(chǎn)這些商品的活動，并為其

58、中最有優(yōu)勢，以換取其他國家的產(chǎn)品和優(yōu)勢的貨物，在不同的領(lǐng)域。這種貿(mào)易是基于比較優(yōu)勢的原則。 </p><p>　　對比較優(yōu)勢理論，也被稱為比較成本理論是由大衛(wèi)李嘉圖發(fā)展，在19世紀(jì)的其他經(jīng)濟學(xué)家。它指出，國家之間的貿(mào)易可以為所有有利可圖，即使其中一個國家能生產(chǎn)各種商品更便宜。在生產(chǎn)一種商品，甚至國家的效率，只要有輕微的，相對的差異可以在生產(chǎn)它的比較優(yōu)勢。矛盾的是最好的說明了這個傳統(tǒng)的例子：在城市最好的律師亦是城里

59、最好的打字員。由于該律師不能放棄從法律和打字事項寶貴的時間。但相比打字員的劣勢是至少在打字。因此，打字員在打字上有相對比較優(yōu)勢。 </p><p>　　這個原則是行業(yè)專業(yè)化和職業(yè)化的基礎(chǔ)，即使它在經(jīng)濟上是有利的，完成專業(yè)化可能永遠(yuǎn)不可能發(fā)生，出于戰(zhàn)略的原因，一個國家可以繼續(xù)生產(chǎn)它并不具有優(yōu)勢的商品。專業(yè)化的好處也可能會影響了運輸成本：商品和原材料都必須在世界各地運送，運輸成本的降低將證明它是有利可圖的貿(mào)易。造成另

60、一個國家的貨物自由流動的障礙可能是人為的障礙，如推行貿(mào)易關(guān)稅或配額。 </p><p>　　除了有形貿(mào)易，其中涉及貨物進(jìn)口和出口的商品；也有無形貿(mào)易，其中涉及國家之間的服務(wù)交換。 如希臘和挪威等國家運用大型海洋運輸船隊并提供服務(wù)。這就是一種無形貿(mào)易。當(dāng)一個出口商安排裝運，他租了一條船貨艙，并為出口貨物購買了穩(wěn)健的保險。而在海上，貨物很容易受到許多危險。因此，保險是一項服務(wù)。這成為一些國家的專業(yè)。比如英國由于勞合社

61、倫敦的發(fā)展，額成為這項服務(wù)的主要出口國，以賺取投保其他國家的外貿(mào)費。</p><p>　　在一些國家內(nèi)，他們擁有的商品或制成品出口的方式很少，但他們有一個溫和晴朗的氣候。在冬季，用旅游來吸引游客的國家，由于酒店住宿，餐費，出租車大量資金等，是旅游形成另一種無形的貿(mào)易形式。因此，這是在無形貿(mào)易方面可以作為重要的原材料或商品出口的一些國家。</p><p>　　在這種情況下，作為原料或商品出口

62、的國家，又必須掙錢買生活必需品。 </p><p>　　這有點類似于在16世紀(jì)和19世紀(jì)就存在國際貿(mào)易歐洲之間的貿(mào)易，在較早時候進(jìn)行的大部分貿(mào)易是與一國的殖民地。這是嚴(yán)格按照重商主義的原則的調(diào)查。殖民地應(yīng)該提供母國需要的原材料，然后他們購買全部的從母國生產(chǎn)出的貨物。</p><p>　　工業(yè)革命，是18世紀(jì)從英國開始的，是從貿(mào)易到多方面的國際交流機構(gòu)的殖民地轉(zhuǎn)變。平房工業(yè)讓位給群眾生產(chǎn)工廠

63、。在鐵路和輪船運輸費用降低的同時，新的市場正在為要擴大輸出的貨物尋找更低的運輸成本。 工業(yè)革命也結(jié)束了重商主義政策和自由放任的態(tài)度，在出現(xiàn)的代之而起的準(zhǔn)制造商讓他們高興，并與其他國家進(jìn)行自由貿(mào)易。貿(mào)易也刺激了銀行信貸的增長，保險公司，商業(yè)和改善航運和通信等行業(yè)也得到發(fā)展。 </p><p>　　該谷物法廢除了英國的保護(hù)主義的長期政策。在19世紀(jì)，許多歐洲國家做出的每一個寬松的關(guān)稅稅率其他商業(yè)協(xié)議。降低關(guān)稅和人口增

64、長及工業(yè)的發(fā)展造成貿(mào)易在19世紀(jì)迅速騰飛。 在20世紀(jì)發(fā)生的兩次世界大戰(zhàn)和大蕭條使國際貿(mào)易受到嚴(yán)重干擾。聯(lián)合國，預(yù)感到其國內(nèi)經(jīng)濟受到威脅，于是通過建立自己的各種貿(mào)易壁壘以尋求進(jìn)一步的保護(hù)。情況變得更糟后英國放棄了金本位制。與這密切相關(guān)的英國國家，包括黃金的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)聯(lián)合體成員，以此作為國際支付手段的他們因為破裂和貿(mào)易限制的增加，一些國家不得不求助于物物交換，以獲取外國商品。 </p><p>　　國際貿(mào)易是在這種嚴(yán)峻的

65、困境，于1933年在一個世界經(jīng)濟會議上舉行的會議中形成的，但并未能阻止貨幣貶值和配額安排。 </p><p>　　1934年，美國國務(wù)卿科德爾赫爾說服國會通過了互惠貿(mào)易協(xié)定法案。該法授權(quán)總統(tǒng)與其他國家談判關(guān)稅削減?；セ葙Q(mào)易法案的規(guī)定，美國產(chǎn)業(yè)的保護(hù)使國外進(jìn)口增加，這加劇美國的企業(yè)受傷程度。</p><p>　　這種保護(hù)包括危險點和例外條款下可以通過削減關(guān)稅的取消，如果拒絕美國行業(yè)遭受的經(jīng)

66、濟困難。盡管在該法的保護(hù)主義條款，美國的關(guān)稅大幅降低。 </p><p>　　不久之前，世界戰(zhàn)爭Ⅱ，在年底之前實現(xiàn)聯(lián)合國會員國在布拉頓伍茲，美國新罕布什爾討論減少對國際貿(mào)易的經(jīng)濟障礙的辦法。國際貨幣基金成立作為會議的結(jié)果。該基金旨在鼓勵國際貿(mào)易的穩(wěn)定貨幣，其匯率的增長。 </p><p>　　在戰(zhàn)后初期，有超過20個國家在日內(nèi)瓦開會，瑞士，談判降低關(guān)稅。當(dāng)任何兩個國家達(dá)成一項協(xié)議，以減少

67、產(chǎn)品關(guān)稅的好處擴大到所有參與的國家。這是一個所謂的最惠國待遇條款的適用。 </p><p>　　日內(nèi)瓦關(guān)稅協(xié)定，被寫進(jìn)了關(guān)稅及貿(mào)易總協(xié)定（關(guān)貿(mào)總協(xié)定）。關(guān)貿(mào)總協(xié)定還設(shè)立了國際貿(mào)易的行為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。?？怂估?，協(xié)議禁止把對進(jìn)口配額限制的國家，除非在非常特殊的情況。 </p><p>　　戰(zhàn)后Ⅱ自由貿(mào)易的一些領(lǐng)域，以形成在區(qū)域基礎(chǔ)上解決貿(mào)易問題。在這些領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的移動產(chǎn)品的關(guān)稅將被取消。有些團(tuán)體還豎立一

68、個外人進(jìn)入他們的共同關(guān)稅區(qū)的貨物單。這些團(tuán)體被稱為關(guān)稅同盟。所有貿(mào)易集團(tuán)目標(biāo)是融入大，貨物可自由生產(chǎn)和出售的地理實體的小政治單位。一個大市場面積大大刺激經(jīng)濟增長和繁榮。這些貿(mào)易集團(tuán)是：比荷盧經(jīng)濟聯(lián)盟，歐洲煤鋼共同體（ECSC），歐洲經(jīng)濟共同體（歐共體或共同市場），歐洲自由貿(mào)易聯(lián)盟（EFTA），為經(jīng)濟互助（COMECOM）理事會，拉丁美洲自由貿(mào)易協(xié)會（拉夫塔），中美洲共同市場（中美洲共同），加勒比自由貿(mào)易區(qū)（CARIFTA），加勒比共同體