從另一個角度看教材

1、從另一個角度看教材,龔亞夫,Overview,Task-based language teachingCurriculum goals and objectivesTask typesTeaching vocabularyCritical thinking and readingGrammar teaching,Traditionally…,Curriculum designers and materials writers

2、took as their point of departure the question, What are the grammatical, phonological, and lexical items to be taught? In other words, selection of classroom activities was driven by curriculum goals specified in phonolo

3、gical, morphosyntactic, and lexical terms. Nunan (1991),Why task-based language teaching?,Target task rationale: What is it that learners potentially or actually need to do

4、 with the target language?Psycholinguistic rationale: What are the psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying second language acquisition, and how can these be activated in the classroom?

5、 Nunan (1991)Socio-cultural rationale: learning arises not through interaction but in interaction Lantolf (2000),Why task-based language teaching?,Tasks goals enable the program planner and mater

6、ials writer to provide explicit links between the task and the broader curriculum it is designed to serve. 體現(xiàn)課程目標The value of tasks is that they provide a purpose for the activity which goes beyond the practice of langu

7、age for its own sake. Nunan (1991),Psycholinguistic perspective,A task is a device that guides learners to engage in certain types of information-processing that ar

8、e believed to be important for effective language use and /or for language acquisition from some theoretical standpoint. Tasks are seen as the external means by which we can influence the mental computations that lear

9、ners make. These computations determine how effectively they communicate and how they acquire language. Ellis (2000, 2003),Why task-based language teaching?,Mental computa

10、tion: 詢問、確認、分類、推斷、區(qū)分、預測、總結(jié)、創(chuàng)造、讀圖、反思、協(xié)商…… 以往的功能結(jié)構(gòu)方法是從語言系統(tǒng)的角度設計課程與教學內(nèi)容，任務型語言教學從學生學習的角度來思考,Tradition and the trend,Tradition Grammatical, phonological and lexical items to be taught. The specification

11、 of these items set the parameters for the selection of classroom activities,Trend Tasks are conceptualized in terms of the curriculum goals, input data and activities or procedures which the learners undertake in the

12、 completion of the tasks,Multidimensional curriculum,The objectives of NEC: linguistic knowledge, language skills, cultural awareness, learning strategies and motivation and affective factors Student participation, dev

13、elopment of critical thinking skills, problem-solving, interpersonal communication skills as well as cooperation,Third generation tasks,With third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicat

14、ive and cognitive strategies, they also aim to develop the personality of students through the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational obj

15、ectives, such as enhancing motivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills… Littlewood (2001),Task types:Cognitive,Classifying: Putting things

16、that are similar together in the groups Predicting: Predicting what is to come in the learning processInducing: Looking for patterns and regularities Example: Study a conversation and discove

17、r the rule for forming the simple past tenseTaking notes: Writing down the important information in a text in your own wordsConcept mapping: Showing the main ideas in a text in the form of a mapInfer

18、encing: Using what you know to learn something newDiscriminating: Distinguishing between the main idea and the supporting informationDiagramming: Using information from a text to label a diagram,Task

19、types: Interpersonal,Co-operating: Sharing ideas and learning with other students Example: Work in small groups to read a text and complete a tableRole Playi

20、ng: Predicting to be somebody else and using the language for the situation you are in Example: You are a reporter. Use the information

21、 from the reading to interview the writer,Task types: Linguistic,Conversational patterns: Using expressions to start conversations and keep them going. Example: Match formula

22、ic expressions to situations Practicing: Doing controlled exercise to improve knowledge and skillsUsing context: Using the surrounding context to guess the meaning of an unknown word, phrase, or

23、conceptSummarizing: Picking out and presenting the major points in a text in summary formSelective listening: Listening for key information without trying to understand every wordSkimming: Reading quickly to

24、 get a general idea of a text,Task types:Affective,Personalizing: Learners share their own opinions, feelings and ideas about a subject. Example: Read a letter from a

25、 friend in need and give adviceSelf-evaluating: Thinking about how well you did on a learning task, and rating yourself on a scaleReflecting: Thinking about ways you learn best,T

26、ask types: Creative,Brainstorming: Thinking of as many new words and ideas as one can Example: Work in groups and think of a many occupations as

27、you can Nunan (2004),Assessment,Criterion-referenced assessment: Criterion-referencing occurs when learner’s performance is described in relation to a

28、n explicit stated standards; e.g. a person’s ability may be reported in terms of a ‘can-do’ statement describing the kinds of tasks he or she can perform using the target language.

29、 Brindley (2001),Task and performance,It seems that task accomplishment is the ultimate focus for evaluating human performance. It follows that L2 performance assessment and task-based approaches to language t

30、eaching and assessment will likely share a greatly deal of theoretical and practical common ground. Norris (1998 ),Tasks,The language te

31、sters have increasingly recognized the value of tasks for assessing learners’ capacity to communicate in an L2.--Has a favourable washback effect;--Enables assessment to be more easily integrated into the learning proc

32、ess;--Provides learners with useful diagnostic feedback on progress and achievement Ellis (2003),Task-based testing,Task-based testing is seen as a way of ach

33、ieving a close correlation between test performance; i.e. what the testee does during the test, and the criterion performance, i.e. what the testee has to do in the real world, and thus ensuring the validity of the asse

34、ssment. Ellis (2003),如何設計教案與任務,以行為動詞來描述目標: 1 能力表現(xiàn)（performance),即教學目標應該列出 學習者需要能夠做什么； 2 條件（condition），即能力表現(xiàn)的條件與環(huán)境； 3 標準（criterion），即目標應該描述學習者什么樣的表現(xiàn)是可以接受的。Nu

35、nan（2007）也認為，在能力描述的標準中，目標通常包含三個組成部分：一是能力表現(xiàn)或任務描述(performance or task statement)。這一部分主要描述學習者能夠做的事情。二是對于語言能力表現(xiàn)或完成任務條件的描述。即在何種情境下(circumstances)和條件下（conditions）學生能完成這些任務。第三部分是對于完成任務標準的描述。,范例,在要求完成一個口語任務時，學習者要能對一個英語為母語的人說出他/

36、她的名字，地址和電話號碼，能拼出自己的名字、街道和城市的名稱，使得考試者能記錄下來，達到100%的準確。 在一個真實的交際情境下，（條件），學生將詢問所購物品的價格（任務）。學生所說的話可以使一個具有體諒心態(tài)的英語為本族語的人可以理解（標準）。,Pre-task phase,Three purposes:---to serve to introduce new language that learners can use whi

37、le performing the task; ---to mobilize existing linguistic resources;---to ease processing load, and to push learners to interpret tasks in more demanding ways Skehan (1998),Pre-task phase,Non-task prepa

38、ration activities --- brain storming 大腦風暴--- mind map 思維導圖 Addressing linguistic demands of a task--- Predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topic--- Planning/

39、strategic planning,Teaching vocabulary,Readers need to work out which words belong together and form units of meaning– a ‘phrasing’ or ‘chunking’ process. They also need to recognize key words and phrases. Exemplar-b

40、ased system “ 以范例為基礎的” Rule-based system “以規(guī)則為基礎的” Skehan (1996); Mitchel &Martin (2004),Multi-word units--“chunks of language” , “l(fā)exical chunks”,Collocations 習慣搭配Phrasal verbs 常用短語Sentence frame

41、s 句子結(jié)構(gòu)Social formulae 社交套話Discourse markers 語段連接詞,Multiword units,The most fundamental guiding principle (for) those who are anxious to be proficient in foreign conversation… is this: Memorizing perfectly the largest n

42、umber of common and useful word-groups! Palmer (1925) As a way of quickly developing fluency and of picking up native-like expressions, groups of words should be learned as units

43、. Nation (2003),Language acquisition research,Lexico-semantic theory– a net work of associations, a web-like structure of interconnected links (Aitchison

44、, 1987) Connect the word with already known words, the links is created, the learning takes place (S?kmen ) 當詞匯增加到一定程度時，頭腦就會建立一個系統(tǒng)，使詞匯有機地組織起來，以便提取--Creating word web,Promote a deep level of processing,--- Better lear

45、ning takes place when a deeper level of semantic processing is required because the words are encoded with elaboration Craik & Lockhart (1972) --- When students are asked to manipulate words, relate them

46、to other words and to their own experiences, and then justify their choices, these words associations are reinforced. S?kmen,Semantic feature analysis,Classroom techniques and tasks,Create a

47、 range of 5-16 encounters with a word in order for student to truly acquire itDictionary work: S?kmenSemantic elaborationMeaning-focused input activitiesDeliberate learning activitiesMeaning-focused output activitie

48、sFluency activities,Critical thinking skills,Critical thinking brings conscious awareness, skills, and standards to the process of observing, analyzing, reasoning, evaluating, reading, and communicating.

49、 Mayfield (2007),Critical thinking— 22 comprehension strategies,Drawing conclusionsUnderstanding cause and effectMaking connectionsComparing view points Evaluating ideasReading b

50、etween the linesMaking judgments,22 comprehension strategies (cont.),Making comparisonsInterpreting meaningMaking inferencesComparing charactersReading a mapInterpreting graphs and chartsMaking calculationsExamin

51、ing reasons,22 comprehension strategies (cont.),Separating facts from opinion Identifying the main ideaOrganizing informationSequencing Summarizing Recalling details Synthesizing,Making judgments,Highlight the thr

52、ee pieces of informationin the text that you think everyoneshould know:Most important_________________Second most important___________Least important__________________,Developing alternative solutions,With a group,

53、brainstorm three different solutions to ..’s problem.A __________________B __________________C ___________________ When you brainstorm, everyone contribute ideas. Write down every idea. ….,Examining reasons,Why do y

54、ou think it’s necessary in this experiment to collect…?____________________________How do you think the author says to use…?_____________________________Why do you think…?____________________________,Consciousness-r

55、aising tasks (CR),1 There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention2 The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature and they may also be provided with an expl

56、icit rule describing or explaining the feature.3 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted feature.4 learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the gram

57、matical structure. Ellis (1991),The post-task phase,Three major pedagogical goals:--提供再做任務的機會（to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task）--反思任務是怎樣完

58、成的（to encourage reflection on how the task was performed）--關注語言的形式（to encourage attention to form）,Reflecting on the task,Present a report on how they did the task and what they decided or discovered – oral or written

59、Summary the outcome of the taskReflect or evaluate of their own performance (fluency, complicity or accuracy)Metacognitive strategies 元認知策略(planning, monitoring and evaluating),The post-task phase,Reviewing of learner

60、errors反思錯誤Consciousness-raising tasks語法意識Production-practice activities操練活動Noticing activities 注意語言的準確,Reviewing of learner errors,Teacher moves from group to group to listen and note down the errorsAddress these err

61、ors with the whole class - can be written on the board- students can be invited to correct it- listen again and edit their own performance- teacher comments,Consciousness-raising tasks (CR),The learners are expected

62、to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通過思考理解語法用法Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是學生口頭表達To direct students to attend explicitly

63、 to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task補充不足,Production-practice activities,Repetition 重復活動Substitution 替換練習Gapped sentences 填空練習Jumbled sentences 打亂的句子Transformation drills

64、變換句型Dialogues 對話,Consciousness-raising tasks,There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention就某一語法現(xiàn)象單獨講解The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an

65、explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 給例子說明語法用法或?qū)φZ法詳細描述,Consciousness-raising tasks,The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通過思考理解語法用法Learners may be opt