外文翻譯---青少年吸煙行為與家庭各因素、壓力、自尊及人格的相關(guān)研究

1、<p>　　Research on Relations among Adolescence's Smoking Behavior,</p><p>　　Family Factors, Stress, Self-esteem and Personality</p><p>　　Abstract Smoking behavior is a sign that adolesce

2、nce begin problem behavior. Smoking behavior is often associated with other kinds of problem behavior and is harm to health development of adolescence. Figures of recent survey have shown that in many county smoking prev

3、alence among young people increased rapidly, many researchers pay attention to the case, many researches on adolescence's smoking behavior are seen in educational and psychological field.</p><p>　　Differ

4、ent researches define smoking behavior in different ways. This subject researches smoking behavior from two aspects: smoking habit and smoking quantity. The subject also researches some factors associated with adolescent

5、 smoking behavior from two aspects: one is outside circumstance that is involved in family life, the other is personal factors that include perceived stress, self-esteem and personality. The subject does this to explore

6、which factor is connected with smoking behavior. As a </p><p>　　Youth has become the world's rapidly growing group of consumers of cigarettes.Smoking behavior of young people is directly related to its a

7、dult smoking behavior, the majority of adult smokers are starting from a young age and formed a smoking habit.For the seriousness of youth smoking, scholars have started on this issue a lot of research. At present,

8、the problem of youth smoking research in the following two aspects: whether the factors that led to the smoking behavior of young people? How to p</p><p>　　Youth smoking is a serious social problem, caused b

9、y the problems of young smokers has become the focus of the community, how to prevent and reduce youth smoking behavior is an urgent need to address the problem. People smoke in life itself is an invisible killer, s

10、moking can cause cancer and other malignant diseases, and adolescents are at an important period of physical growth. Smoking behavior of young people will enable them to produce a series of problem behavior, such as

11、 smoking, drinking </p><p>　　1.family structure and the relationship between youth smoking</p><p>　　Over the past few decades the social conditions in many countries important cha

12、nges have taken place, one of which is living in single-parent families and step-parent families in the rapidly growing number of children. With divorce and remarriagerates in society is growing, born in incomplete famil

13、ies of children is also increasing.After investigation, in 1998 young people aged 11 to experience a 1S number ofparents divorced twice in 1978 (Summerfield & Matheson, 2000).</p><p>　　Worth noting that

14、these grow in single-parent families or step-parent families withchildren than other children the same age may experience more adverse factors. First,the average income of single parent families and average household inc

15、ome than the average three times lower (Eurostat, 2000). These studies also found that step-parents /single parent families often have a lot of young people in a negative way of life, such a negative way of life and amon

16、g young people is closely related to unhea</p><p>　　We can learn from the social and cultural point of view to explore this issue, usually, fromyoung families do not complete the incidence of problem behavio

17、r is far higher than the general youth, such as these children rarely in school, life Showed good quality, in theearly days, they usually have higher absenteeism rates and truancy rates in them are more prone to deviant

18、behavior and problem behavior, such as criminal behavior,running away from home and close contact with the health of some of </p><p>　　But there is still debate this question: do not complete a full family a

19、nd between families caused by the difference really is a major factor in youth smoking, and if so, why? This, there is no consistent and reliable answers. Dornbusch and his colleagues believe that the reason yo

20、ung people from single-parent families more likely to smoke because of the lack of parental monitoring and socio-emotional support (Dornbusch, 1991). An American scholar on the health behavior of young people aged 1

21、2-1</p><p>　　How young people took to the road smoking. The first step, the parents divorced or living with their parents will be reduced following the youth and family links, including communication an

22、d emotions from other family support; the second step, loose family ties and less family interference increased children and other young people smoking or drug use contact; the third step, the above two factors comb

23、ined to make young people the possibility of smoking or drug use greatly increased. </p><p>　　In contrast with these results, some studies found that family structure has nothing to do with youth smokin

24、g behavior. Dunham and others, such as 11-14 year-olds in the survey study found that family structure on youth smoking behavior is not obvious, they will introduce their research in family relations, family relatio

25、ns on adolescent smoking found behavior has a direct impact and the effect of regulation by the age variable (Sokl, Katc, 1997). Farell et al (1992) pointed out that the impact </p><p>　　Smoking behavio

26、r does not have significant correlation. In the other six countries, young people smoking and step-parent family environment was significantly related, and all countries, single-parent families than the rate of yout

27、h smoking in the full family rate of youth smoking. Glending, Shucksmith & Hendtry (1997) found that daily smokers, the step-parent families had the highest youth smoking rates, followed by young single-parent f

28、amily, and complete the lowest smoking rate of young famili</p><p>　　Although the relationship between family structure and smoking are not consistent, but most studies agree that family structure is the res

29、ult of incomplete an important factor in youth smoking, and other inconsistencies in the conclusions may have its geographical and methodological problems.</p><p>　　2. parental factors and the quality of the

30、 relationship between youth smoking </p><p>　　Many studies and several views of the authority of the family in adolescent behavior have proved the socialization process plays an important role (Maccoby

31、& Martin, 1983). Children's social behavior mainly dependent on their families, especially the support and guide parents to complete. In the way parents raise their children in the community of the clas

32、sical view, Maccoby & Martin that the family environment, psychological studies of social behavior related to the behavior of parents, childre</p><p>　　In the home environment, parents youth grow is imme

33、asurable. First, the parents of their warmth, such as determining the level of interest whether the healthy growth of young people. Foxcroff & Lowe (1991) surveyed 1,000 young people aged 12-16 to understand young pe

34、ople's understanding of parenting styles and their self-reported health behaviors such as smoking, alcohol relationship. According to the participants self-reported family support and control the situation and bring

35、them into four di</p><p>　　Management functions, and low self-esteem and poor mental function after a direct result of youth smoking and other unhealthy behaviors (Conrad, 1992). So Sweeting & West

36、(1998) self-esteem variable in the control cases, family life and health of young people between the study done and found: the relationship between adolescents and parents, the more distant or in conflict with their pare

37、nts, they are more likely to have harmful health behaviors. And the relationship between the two high and low</p><p>　　Most studies to date have determined the quality factors of the parents of you

38、th smokingis indeed an important factor, but in the specific study, the study chose a different angle.</p><p>　　In addition, parents occupation and career decisions by the parents, socio-economic status of f

39、amilies are considered may be related to youth smoking behavior factors.Sweeting emphasized the differences between social groups, family life class health behavior of young people's potential impact, but the family

40、life of the physical environment has nothing to do with adolescent health behavior. However, Gonrad (1992) results have shown that parental occupation, family socio-economic status areassoc</p><p>　　3.Smokin

41、g and the relationship between adolescent physical and psychological pressure Pressure on the relationship between smoking and has long been a controversial issue, there has been the relationship between its two oppos

42、ing views. One view is that smoking and stress have a very close relationship between the relevant studies to illustrate the three aspects are closely related between the two: 1, compared with non-smokers, smokers o

43、ften report that they feel more much pressure, smokers re</p><p>　　Most smokers report when they feel nervous or anxious, they often smoke, because smoking makes them feel relaxed and comfortable, but s

44、moking is one of the main methods to control their emotions. Ward, Green, and Horn's survey found that 80% of smokers agree with the statement that smoking makes people feel relaxed and happy. In the survey, smo

45、kers of various classes on the following questions in the affirmative answer: "When I nervous when smoking made me relax", "smoking makes me calm down," "</p><p>　　With the increase

46、in stress levels they face, young people tend to develop increased smoking behavior and smoking, that is, young smokers compared with non-smoking young people report they are in a stronger pressure on the environment

47、0;. In a 1684 survey of Canadian high school students in the horizontal, with their peers than non-smokers, smokers who reported more stress, anxiety and fear, but the difference between the two reached a statistica

48、lly significant level (Mitic, McGuire & Neumann, 198</p><p>　　In addition, the relationship between smoking and stress there are gender differences, Byrne & Masanov (2003) the pressure on young

49、people and future prediction of smoking behavior in young men that their stress levels and smoking behavior was only weak correlation and this correlation can be explained by other factors. Female adolescents i

50、n stress levels shown a strong correlation with smoking, stress exists in all aspects of life of smoking girls. Byrne & Mazanov for more than two thousand six</p><p>　　The other school of smoking an

51、d stress on the point of view does not exist between smoking and high stress related. They think that those who believe that smoking and stress are often highly correlated that smokers are randomly assigned to the e

52、ntire population, the individual is a smoker is arbitrary. But in fact, a lot of evidence that individuals of different psychological tendencies, such as the tendency of psychological symptoms of depression, neuroti

53、cism tendencies, and reactions of nicoti</p><p>　　Although the relationship between smoking and stress there is still some controversy, but most studies have confirmed that smoking and stress the close relat

54、ionship between.</p><p>　　青少年吸煙行為與家庭各因素、壓力、</p><p>　　自尊及人格的相關(guān)研究</p><p>　　青少年吸煙行為是青少年問題行為開始的一種標(biāo)志，它與其它眾多問題行為相連，嚴(yán)重危害了青少年的身心健康。近十幾年來，據(jù)世界各國的調(diào)查結(jié)果，青少年的吸煙率正在不斷上升，這一現(xiàn)象引起了眾多研究者的關(guān)注，在心理與教育工作領(lǐng)域中

55、也隨之出現(xiàn)了大量關(guān)于探討影響青少年吸煙因素的研究。</p><p>　　不同的研究從不同角度界定吸煙行為，本研究主要從青少年吸煙行為和吸煙量來研究青少年吸煙與諸因素的關(guān)系。具體主要從青少年所生長的家庭環(huán)境這種外部環(huán)境和青少年所感受到的壓力以及他們的自尊、人格這些內(nèi)部因素來考慮青少年的吸煙行為，旨在探討究竟那些因素與青少年的吸煙行為相關(guān)，為預(yù)防青少年吸煙和幫助吸煙的青少年戒煙提出一點(diǎn)建議。</p>&

56、lt;p>　　青少年己成為世界上迅速增長的香煙消費(fèi)者群體。青少年的吸煙行為直接關(guān)系到其成人后的吸煙行為，大多數(shù)成人吸煙者都是從青少年時(shí)期就開始并形成吸煙習(xí)慣的。針對青少年吸煙的嚴(yán)重性，學(xué)者們對這一問題展開了大量的研究。目前，對青少年吸煙問題的研究主要集中在以下兩個(gè)方面:究竟那些因素導(dǎo)致了青少年的吸煙行為?如何預(yù)防青少年的吸煙行為?后一個(gè)問題以前一個(gè)問題的研究為基礎(chǔ)，所以對影響青少年吸煙因素的探討日益成為研究的焦點(diǎn)。一些研究認(rèn)為家庭

57、內(nèi)部的父母、環(huán)境因素影響了青少年的吸煙行為，另一些研究認(rèn)為社會外部環(huán)境影響了青少年的吸煙行為，還有一些研究認(rèn)為青少年的吸煙行為是由其個(gè)人內(nèi)部因素所導(dǎo)致的。然而，由于影響青少年吸煙行為的因素本身具有復(fù)雜性，這方面的研究還處于繼續(xù)探討階段，還沒有一個(gè)完整的理論體系和統(tǒng)一定性的結(jié)論。</p><p>　　青少年吸煙是目前嚴(yán)重的社會問題之一，由青少年吸煙引發(fā)的各種問題己成為社會各界關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)，如何預(yù)防和減少青少年吸煙行為

58、成為迫切需要解決的問題。煙本身是人們生命中的無形殺手，吸煙會引起癌癥等多種惡性疾病，而青少年正處于長身體的重要時(shí)期。青少年的吸煙行為還會使他們產(chǎn)生一系列的問題行為，如吸煙、飲酒，甚至自殺等，現(xiàn)有對青少年吸煙行為的研究認(rèn)為青少年的吸煙行為伴隨著許多不良的后果，如學(xué)習(xí)成績差、在校行為不良，、不愿上學(xué)、問題行為等(kieiman, et al, 1988)。這些無疑都對青少年的身心健康發(fā)展造成很大影響。另外，青少年正處于人生觀、世界觀形成的時(shí)

59、期，在這一時(shí)期產(chǎn)生問題行為，將嚴(yán)重危害他們的心智健康發(fā)展。</p><p>　　本文從青少年的吸煙行為和吸煙量兩個(gè)方面入手，探討與青少年吸煙有關(guān)的家庭環(huán)境因素、父母因素、理解的壓力水平、自尊水平和人格傾向特征，進(jìn)而分析影響青少年吸煙行為的內(nèi)在機(jī)制，促進(jìn)青少年健康成長的積極因素，抵制不良因素對青少年成長的影響。</p><p>　　1.家庭結(jié)構(gòu)與青少年吸煙的關(guān)系</p><

60、;p>　　過去幾十年中許多國家的社會狀況發(fā)生了重要的變化，其中之一便是生活在單親家庭和繼父母家庭中的孩子數(shù)量迅速增多。隨著社會中離婚率和再婚率不斷增長，出生在不完整家庭中的孩子也越來越多。經(jīng)調(diào)查，1998年11一1S歲青少年中經(jīng)歷父母離異的人數(shù)是1978年的兩倍(Summerfield & Matheson, 2000).</p><p>　　值得我們注意的是，這些生長在單親家庭或繼父母家庭中的孩子

61、與同齡的其他孩子相比可能會遭遇更多的不利因素。首先，單親家庭的平均收入要比一般家庭的平均收入低三倍之多(Eurostat, 2000)。這些研究還發(fā)現(xiàn)繼父母/單親家庭中的青少年經(jīng)常有許多負(fù)面的生活方式，這種負(fù)面的生活方式與青少年的不健康生活之間緊密相關(guān)。另外，我們可以從社會文化學(xué)的角度出發(fā)來探討這一問題，通常，來自不完整家庭的青少年在問題行為的發(fā)生率上遠(yuǎn)高于一般青少年，如這些孩子很少在學(xué)校學(xué)習(xí)、生活中表現(xiàn)出優(yōu)良品質(zhì)，在早期，他們通常會有

62、較高的曠課率和逃課率，在他們身上也更容易出現(xiàn)越軌行為和問題行為，如犯罪行為、離家出走以及與身體健康密切聯(lián)系的一些行為問題，如吸煙等(Sweeting, West, & Richards, 1998)。如許多西方國家的研究都發(fā)現(xiàn)來自不完整家庭的青少年有較高的吸煙率( Isohanni, Moilanen &Rantakallio, 1991;Goddard&Higgins, 1999; Tyas&Peder

63、son,1998; Shakib, Mouttapa,Johnson, 2003)。</p><p>　　但對這一問題目前還存在爭論:不完整家庭與完整家庭之間的差別是否真的是造成青少年吸煙的一個(gè)主要因素，如果是，則為什么會這樣?對此，目前還沒有完全一致、可靠的答案。Dornbusch及其同事認(rèn)為來自單親家庭的青少年之所以更容易吸煙是因?yàn)槿狈Ω改副O(jiān)控和社會情感支持(Dornbusch, 1991)。一項(xiàng)美國學(xué)者關(guān)于

64、12-16歲青少年的健康行為研究表明，青少年的吸煙行為與其它不良行為與他們對父母的理解有關(guān)，那些認(rèn)為父母是關(guān)心、愛護(hù)和理解他們的青少年傾向于有較少的吸煙行為，而認(rèn)為父母忽視他們的青少年有更多吸煙行為(Foxcroft&Lowe, 1991)。青少年吸煙與家庭環(huán)境的關(guān)系的研究仍處于不斷完善之中，青少年吸煙受其它家庭因素的影響，其中父母與子女之間疏遠(yuǎn)而淡漠的關(guān)系可能是其首要因素。一些研究將家庭簡單地分為一個(gè)父母或兩個(gè)父母的這種兩分法

65、使問題過于簡單化，分離、離婚、父母死亡都可以造成家庭破裂。另有一些單親家庭與其他成人生活在一起，而另一些單親家庭則沒有(Hoffman, 1995)。美國心理學(xué)家Hoffman通過其研究提出了一個(gè)階梯模型，這個(gè)模型描繪了那些出身于單親家庭的</p><p>　　青少年是如何走上吸煙的道路的。第一步，父母離異或與繼父母生活在一起將降低了青少年與家庭聯(lián)系，包括情感溝通及來自家庭的其他方面的支持;第二步，松散的家庭關(guān)系

66、和較少的家庭干涉增加了孩子與其他吸煙或吸毒青少年的聯(lián)系;第三步，上述二因素結(jié)合使青少年吸煙或吸毒的可能性大大提高。</p><p>　　與上述結(jié)果相反，一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn)家庭結(jié)構(gòu)與青少年的吸煙行為無關(guān)。如Dunham等人在對11-14歲的青少年的調(diào)查研究中發(fā)現(xiàn)，家庭結(jié)構(gòu)對青少年吸煙行為的影響是不明顯的，他們將家庭關(guān)系引入其研究中發(fā)現(xiàn)家庭關(guān)系對青少年吸煙行為有直接影響，而且這種影響受年齡變量的調(diào)節(jié)(Sokl, Katc,

67、 1997). Farell等(1992)的研究指出家庭結(jié)構(gòu)不是影響青少年吸煙的主要原因，青少年吸煙主要受家庭經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況、父母吸煙情況、父母受教育程度等影響?；蛘呒彝ソY(jié)構(gòu)受到社會支持，青少年自身心理因素的調(diào)節(jié)(Miller, 1997)。而Griesbach (2003)等人專門就歐洲7個(gè)國家進(jìn)行了跨文化研究，結(jié)果幾乎在所有的國家中家庭結(jié)構(gòu)作為一個(gè)獨(dú)立的因素影響著青少年的吸煙行為，它不受青少年所在家庭的經(jīng)濟(jì)情況、父母吸煙情況、性別等因素的

68、影響，但他們的研究中也發(fā)現(xiàn)其中一個(gè)國家的家庭結(jié)構(gòu)與青少年吸</p><p>　　煙行為并不具有顯著意義的相關(guān)。在其它六個(gè)國家中，青少年吸煙與繼父母家庭環(huán)境有顯著的相關(guān)，而且所有的國家中，單親家庭中青少年吸煙的比率高于完整家庭中的青少年吸煙的比率。Glending, Shucksmith & Hendtry(1997)發(fā)現(xiàn)在日常吸煙者中，繼父母家庭中的青少年有最高的吸煙率，隨之是單親家庭中的青少年，而完整家

69、庭青少年的吸煙率最低。而Sweeting, West & Richards(1998)對日常吸煙者和偶爾吸煙者的研究得出了相反的結(jié)論。</p><p>　　雖然有關(guān)家庭結(jié)構(gòu)與吸煙的關(guān)系并不一致，但大多數(shù)研究都認(rèn)為家庭結(jié)構(gòu)的不完整是導(dǎo)致青少年吸煙的一個(gè)重要因素，而其它一些不一致的結(jié)論可能有其地域與方法上的問題。</p><p>　　2．父母素質(zhì)因素與青少年吸煙的關(guān)系</p>

70、;<p>　　許多研究和幾項(xiàng)權(quán)威的觀點(diǎn)都證明家庭在青少年行為的社會化過程中起著十分重要的作用(Maccoby & Martin, 1983)。孩子的社會化行為主要依賴他們的家庭，特別是父母的支持和向?qū)硗瓿伞Ｔ诟改笓狃B(yǎng)方式與孩子社會化的經(jīng)典觀點(diǎn)中，Maccoby&Martin認(rèn)為家庭環(huán)境中社會化行為的心理學(xué)研究涉及到父母的行為是怎樣支持孩子學(xué)到那些今后可能會幫助或危害他人的行為習(xí)慣，與此同時(shí)，父母幫助孩子塑

71、造一些社會所需的肯定行為，如幫助他人、獨(dú)立、有責(zé)任心等。當(dāng)孩子進(jìn)入成年時(shí)，許多家庭外的因素逐漸影響他們的成長，但家庭仍然充當(dāng)他們社會化的主要代言人。家庭的社會化過程對個(gè)人現(xiàn)在及未來與健康有關(guān)的行為(如酗酒、吸煙和其它物質(zhì)濫用)有很大影響(Steinberg, 1987).</p><p>　　在家庭環(huán)境中，父母對青少年成長的作用是不可估量的。首先，父母對他們的情感溫暖、關(guān)心程度等決定著青少年是否能健康成長。Fox

72、croff & Lowe(1991)調(diào)查了1000名12-16歲的青少年，了解青少年對父母教養(yǎng)方式的理解與其自我匯報(bào)的健康行為，如吸煙、酗酒之間的關(guān)系。根據(jù)參加者自我報(bào)告的獲得家庭支持和控制的情況，將他們分類到四種不同的家庭環(huán)境中。這四種環(huán)境分別為:溫暖型家庭，這種家庭以高支持和高控制為其主要特點(diǎn):溺愛型家庭，以高支持低控制為其主要特點(diǎn);權(quán)威型家庭，表現(xiàn)為高控制、低支持;忽視型家庭，表現(xiàn)為低支持、低控制。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)對于家庭生活的理

73、解與青少年的健康行為有密切的關(guān)系。那些認(rèn)為父母是權(quán)威和控制型的青少年比那些認(rèn)為父母是溺愛溫暖型的青少年有更多的吸煙行為，忽視型家庭中的青少年吸煙行為最多。其它研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)了類似的結(jié)果，認(rèn)為缺乏父母關(guān)心與尊重和缺乏父母社會支持都與青少年的吸煙行為相關(guān)(Aquilino, 2001; Byrne, Haddock, Poston, 2002)。另有觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為，青少年不健康行為的產(chǎn)生也可能是因?yàn)樵谠缙诎l(fā)展階段中，父母影響了青少年的自尊及其他心理功

74、能，而</p><p>　　迄今為止的大多研究都己確定父母素質(zhì)因素的確是影響青少年吸煙的重要因素之一，但在具體研究中，各研究選擇了不同的角度。</p><p>　　除此之外，父母職業(yè)和由父母職業(yè)決定的家庭社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位都被認(rèn)為可能是與青少年吸煙行為有關(guān)的因素。Sweeting強(qiáng)調(diào)社會群體之間不同階層的家庭生活對青少年的健康行為有潛在的影響，但家庭生活中的物質(zhì)環(huán)境與青少年的健康行為無關(guān)。然而，

75、Gonrad (1992)的研究結(jié)果卻顯示父母職業(yè)、家庭社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位均與青少年的吸煙行為相關(guān)，而且他還發(fā)現(xiàn)父母吸煙是預(yù)測青少年吸煙的一個(gè)重要指標(biāo)。</p><p>　　3.吸煙與青少年身心壓力的關(guān)系</p><p>　　關(guān)于吸煙與壓力的關(guān)系長期以來一直是一個(gè)有爭議的問題，對其二者的關(guān)系一直存在兩種對立的觀點(diǎn)。一種觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為吸煙與壓力之間有非常密切的關(guān)系，有關(guān)的研究主要從三方面來說明二者的密切

76、相關(guān):1、與不吸煙者相比，吸煙者經(jīng)常匯報(bào)他們感受到更多的壓力，吸煙者報(bào)告說吸煙幫助他們解除壓力;2、隨個(gè)人所感受到的壓力水平的增加，他們的吸煙量也有所增加;3、吸煙者在感受到生活壓力水平低的情況下可能會戒煙，而那些戒煙的人匯報(bào)他們感受到較低水平的壓力。與此相反，另一種觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為吸煙與壓力并不存在密切的相關(guān)，二者的相關(guān)關(guān)系常常是不顯著的。</p><p>　　大多數(shù)的吸煙者匯報(bào)當(dāng)他們感到緊張或焦慮時(shí)，他們經(jīng)常會吸煙，

77、因?yàn)槲鼰熓顾麄兏械捷p松和自在，同時(shí)吸煙也是控制情緒的主要方法之一。Ward, Green和Horn的調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)有80%的吸煙者贊同這一陳述，即吸煙使人感到輕松和愉快。在問卷調(diào)查中，吸煙者對以下諸類問題都做了肯定回答:“當(dāng)我緊張不安的時(shí)候，吸煙使我放松”，“吸煙使我平靜下來”，“除非吸煙，否則我不會長久地對生活感到滿意”(Speilberger, 1986)。這些研究暗示了吸煙確實(shí)能幫助人們應(yīng)對壓力、控制情緒。煙是人們的情緒調(diào)節(jié)劑，吸煙確實(shí)

78、能平靜和減少吸煙者的焦慮和憤怒情緒。另外，一些研究也表明，經(jīng)常吸煙的人在沒有煙的情況下會比不吸煙者有更多的負(fù)面情緒，在沒有煙的情況下，吸煙者會經(jīng)受更多壓力和憤怒的情感。( Hughes,Hiffins & Hatsukami, 1990)。吸煙與壓力之間有一種互相影響的關(guān)系，吸煙使人們能很好的應(yīng)對壓力，同時(shí)人們對煙的依賴可能會使他們在沒有煙的情況下感到更多的負(fù)面情緒。因此，吸煙者比不吸煙者經(jīng)歷了更多的壓力，大量的研究也證明了這一

79、點(diǎn)，吸煙者的壓力、緊張水平顯著的高于不吸煙者的壓力、緊張水平(Warb</p><p>　　隨其所面臨壓力水平的增長，青少年傾向于發(fā)展吸煙行為和增加吸煙量，也就是說，與不吸煙的青少年相比，吸煙青少年報(bào)告他們處于更強(qiáng)的壓力環(huán)境中。在一項(xiàng)對1684名加拿大中學(xué)生的橫向調(diào)查研究中，與同齡不吸煙的人相比，那些吸煙者報(bào)告有更多的緊張、焦慮和擔(dān)心，而且二者的差別達(dá)到了顯著的統(tǒng)計(jì)水平(Mitic, McGuire &

80、Neumann, 1985)。在英國的調(diào)查也發(fā)現(xiàn)不吸煙的人自我報(bào)告有最低的壓力水平，相比而言，偶爾吸煙者則報(bào)告較高的壓力水平，而那些日常吸煙的人自我報(bào)告的壓力水平是三者當(dāng)中最高的(Siqueira et al, 2000)。美國的一項(xiàng)事后回溯研究中，要求被試分別描述自己在過去兩年中的吸煙行為與情感狀況，發(fā)現(xiàn)隨情感痛苦的逐漸增加，人們傾向于從偶爾吸煙者轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槿粘Ｎ鼰熣摺?Hirschman,Leventhal & Glynn, 1

81、984)。另一個(gè)為期兩年的縱向追蹤研究也證實(shí)了隨著學(xué)生壓力水平的增長，他們更可能轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榻?jīng)常吸煙者(Will, 1986)。當(dāng)女中學(xué)生被問及她們在吸煙時(shí)的情緒感受時(shí)，經(jīng)常吸煙者報(bào)告說吸煙會使她們感到更平靜，然而在沒有煙時(shí)，她們會感到非常焦慮與不安。研究者</p><p>　　另外，吸煙與壓力的關(guān)系還存在性別差異，Byrne & Masanov(2003)對青少年壓力與未來吸煙行為的預(yù)測研究表明在青少年男性中

82、其壓力水平與吸煙行為只有很弱的相關(guān)，而且這種相關(guān)可以被其它因素解釋。而在女青少年中顯示了壓力水平與吸煙有很強(qiáng)的相關(guān)，壓力存在于吸煙女生生活的各個(gè)方面。Byrne & Mazanov對兩千六百多名青少年進(jìn)行了為期十二個(gè)月的追蹤調(diào)查，發(fā)現(xiàn)女生匯報(bào)的壓力水平顯著高于男生，即在校青少年的壓力水平在性別上存在差異。其它有關(guān)青少年與成人的壓力研究中也確證了這一點(diǎn)，即與男性相比，女性更可能匯報(bào)和經(jīng)歷更多的壓力事件(Groeer & T

83、homas, 1992)。與此相應(yīng)，一些研究報(bào)告了青少年女性的吸煙率高于男性((Byrne, Reinhart, 1998; Hill, White & Letcher, 1999).</p><p>　　關(guān)于吸煙與壓力的另一派觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為吸煙與壓力之間并不存在高相關(guān)。他們認(rèn)為那些認(rèn)為吸煙與壓力有高相關(guān)的人往往認(rèn)為吸煙者是隨機(jī)分配于整個(gè)人群中的，個(gè)人是否成為一個(gè)吸煙者是隨意的?？墒菍?shí)際上，大量的證據(jù)表明個(gè)人不

84、同的心理傾向，如心理癥狀中的抑郁傾向，人格中的神經(jīng)質(zhì)傾向，以及對尼古丁的反應(yīng)情況(對尼古丁是否敏感)都會影響個(gè)人吸煙的可能性。所以，吸煙者與不吸煙者在開始吸煙時(shí)只是存在情感痛苦方面的不同，而不是壓力水平不同，幾項(xiàng)縱向研究都支持這一觀點(diǎn)(Gilbert, 1995)。另外值得注意的是，那些未成癮的吸煙者匯報(bào)他們只是偶爾會用吸煙這種方式來應(yīng)對負(fù)面情緒，在他們中間，吸煙與壓力并不存在相關(guān)(Shiffman et al, 1994) 。<