外文翻譯--中小型地區(qū)企業(yè)新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)的挑戰(zhàn)

1、<p><b>　　中文3340字</b></p><p>　　Small and medium district enterprises and the new product development challenge</p><p>　　Literature dealing with the product development process in

2、 large-scale industries is abundant. However, there is general agreement that the new product development (NPD) process is not adequately studied in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and models and tools specifically f

3、ocused for these units are lacking. </p><p>　　The innovation process in SMEs possesses certain distinguishing features that would suggest a specific approach to NPD activities. When compared with large-sized

4、 firms, the innovative process in small units is more informal and less structured, the base of managerial competencies is limited, availability of financial resources is lower, the attraction towards skilled labour weak

5、er and the propensity for interaction with other firms is limited.</p><p>　　Effective NPD has become the focal point of competitiveness in many industries, particularly those where product life has shortened

6、, competition increased on a global basis, and customer demand for greater product variety has grown (Maylor, 1997; Pisano 1997). Consequently, research on best practices in product development, that is, practices and me

7、thods which make firms good product innovators, has increased (see Abdalla, 1999; Griffin, 1997).</p><p>　　Analysing these contributions we can note that most are ascribable to concurrent engineering (CE) to

8、ols and techniques. CE suggests an “integrated” design approach, that is, a systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of products and processes. This would force developers to consider all elements of the

9、production cycle right from conception to expedition, including quality, cost, schedule and user requirements.</p><p>　　There do not appear to be any papers on the specific problems of NPD in IDs. However, v

10、arious authors point out the characteristics of the innovativeprocess that typically develop in IDs. We can observe how the district localisation mitigates some of the limits mentioned, but can generate others:</p>

11、<p>　　(1) District firms benefit from external economies (the presence of agencies that offer specific services, a specialised labour market, support infrastructures, lower transport cost, greater facilities for i

12、nteraction thanks to geographic proximity and common cultural identities, etc.) (Nassimbeni, 2003). Thus, the district location mitigates problems related to:</p><p>　　1、 information access and exchange;<

13、/p><p>　　2、difficulties in developing and managing inter-organisation relationships; and</p><p>　　3、the availability of a skilled workforce.</p><p>　　(2) On the other hand the strong d

14、ivision of labour (specialisation), and the consequent fragmentation of production tasks that characterise the ID, hinder the “concurrent” management of innovative processes. Moreover, they prevent the development of pro

15、duct and process holism required for effective NPD activities. Thus, path dependency towards only a few (mainly) productive tasks emerges. Finally, it does not favour “systemic” innovation. Robertson and Laglois (1995) o

16、bserve that in the past in</p><p>　　This problem is particularly relevant nowadays, when many scholars are questioning the future of the local system. In the era of globalisation is the district formula main

17、taining its vitality, is it beginning to decline, or is it just changing shape? No unequivocal answer to this question can be found in the literature. On one hand there are those who think that globality is showing up al

18、l the limits of local industrial systems (Ferrucci and Varaldo, 1993; Gottardi, 1996; Grabher, 1993). On the </p><p>　　A specificity requires a careful design approach, which should take into account all the

19、 technical constraints, so product and process engineering phases must be closely integrated. The first step is product concept resulting from a market analysis and has the objective of formalising the initial idea of th

20、e new model. Next comes prototyping when the prototype of a new model is constructed according to the original design, so the new-style eyewear becomes tangible. The similarity between the aes</p><p>　　Regar

21、dless of the amount and type of involvement, this is the moment when co-design begins. Some suppliers are invited to take part in the development activity and the type and characteristics of the components to be manufact

22、ured are disclosed to them. Next follows the cost analysis and part rationalisation. Here manufacturing cost is estimated and ways to rationalise the components defined in the previous phases are detected. For example, a

23、 standard might replace an ad hoc component, different </p><p>　　Once the designing activities have been completed and the models chosen, tools and equipment are prepared and internal or external manufacturi

24、ng begins (second supplier involvement). It is important to contact the suppliers promptly so as to reserve their productive capacity and fix the working times and delivery dates. At the same time as components are being

25、 manufactured, the tools for welding must be produced. Once the parts have been delivered, the cycle of assembly begins, i.e. welding of t</p><p>　　This NPD mapping analysis enabled us to identify some typic

26、al problems faced by the SMEs. They are mostly organisational and managerial problems that can be summarised as：1、Poor or rough formalisation of the steps in product development. We think that significant improvements in

27、 NPD performances could be obtained by a clearer reconstruction of the phases, activities and tasks. 2、Weak connections and overlapping between the creative, technical/design and manufacturing phases.3、Instruments for or

28、g</p><p>　　Downstream from the analysis of the NPD processes, we tried to individuate ways to re-appraise and re-organise these activities. The first type of intervention concerns the cultural sphere as this

29、 is where we encountered the main obstacles to innovation. Some deeply-rooted assumptions regarding the NPD process exist in the firms analysed and need to be changed. Much of the following section is the result of a kno

30、wledge-based approach to NPD.</p><p>　　According to our data and the opinions of several experts interviewed, some deeply-rooted assumptions which hinder the improvement of NPD activities need to be changed.

31、 Such as Product value：from “material”, “tangible” and connected to its “functionality” to intangible, linked to its capacity to identify with a style. Designers’ task: to capture explicit and implicit market requirement

32、s , to represent a vision, to impose a style, to identify and integrate potential sources for innovation. NPD: d</p><p>　　In this paper we present the main results of a research project aimed at rationalisin

33、g and improving the NPD process in SMEs of the Italian eyewear district. On the bases of empirical evidence, the specificity of this product and the main steps in its development were identified. Then, the problems and l

34、imitations usually faced by the SMEs are highlighted. Finally, the study suggests appropriate methodologies for NPD.</p><p>　　Many limitations mentioned in the literature on NPD activities in the SMEs are co

35、nfirmed. For example SMEs often resisted the introduction of several CE tools. Most of the units examined are not aware of CE principles and the benefits they can bring. Managerial resources are limited and they have lit

36、tle technical know-how on re-engineering or continuously improve processes, and how to select appropriate tools from the large number of CE supports. As a result the steps in PD are poorly formalised</p><p>

37、　　On the other hand, empirical evidence suggests that the scarce availability of financial resources is not the real barrier. The methodology for NPD proposed here does not require large financial investments as it is ma

38、inly based on ways to improve the allocation and use of available resources. In the first place it requires changes in cultural attitudes. Enterprises need to learn the role played by intangible determinants of product v

39、alue, redefine the profile and the tasks of designers, and thi</p><p>　　The consequences of organisational design affect, in primis, product development. Echelons, previously considered of minor importance a

40、s they are only involved at the end of the value chain (such as customers or suppliers), nowadays acquire new importance. Attention to knowledge-related aspects is particularly important for the enterprises considered. T

41、hey operate within a district system with a tradition for manufacturing and where localized expertise exists. In order to exploit these distincti</p><p>　　In conclusion, although the methodology proposed cou

42、ld possibly be applied also in non-district SMEs, the district environment influences its implementation, facilitating some interventions (extension of the transactional environment, access to shared expertise) and hinde

43、ring others (project formalisation and scheduling, “concurrent” management of the process). These changes are not easily understood and achieved by entrepreneurs with a predominately productive background, but the future

44、 of many</p><p><b>　　出處：</b></p><p>　　Alberto De Toni, Guido Nassimbeni: Small and medium district enterprises and the new product development challenge(Evidence from Italian eyewear

45、 district ) [J],International Journal of Operations & Production Management ,2003,Volume: 23 Issue: 6 </p><p>　　中小型地區(qū)企業(yè)新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)的挑戰(zhàn)</p><p>　　研究大型工業(yè)（企業(yè)）新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)過程的有很多，但是研究中小型企業(yè)的的新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)的文章并不是很充分，并且專門研

46、究一些單位或企業(yè)的更是少之又少了。</p><p>　　中小企業(yè)的的創(chuàng)新過程有一定的特點(diǎn)，可以針對(duì)新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)提出一些具體的方法，但是與大型企業(yè)相比，中小企業(yè)的創(chuàng)新顯得相對(duì)不規(guī)范，缺少層次分明。加上其管理能力有限，財(cái)政資源低，對(duì)熟練勞動(dòng)力的吸引力和與其他企業(yè)的互動(dòng)能力都很有限。</p><p>　　有效的新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)已成為競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力的著力點(diǎn)，在許多行業(yè)尤其是那些產(chǎn)品生命周期較短的行業(yè)在全球范圍內(nèi)競(jìng)

47、爭(zhēng)更為激烈。消費(fèi)者對(duì)更好的多樣性的產(chǎn)品需求也不斷增長(zhǎng)（梅勒，1997；皮薩諾，1997）。因此，在產(chǎn)品開發(fā)上，實(shí)踐和方法可以使企業(yè)提升產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新度（見阿普杜拉，1999；格里芬1997）。</p><p>　　分析這些貢獻(xiàn)，我們大部分采用并行工程（CE）的工具和技術(shù)。CE是一種綜合的設(shè)計(jì)方法，即用系統(tǒng)的方法整合，要求產(chǎn)品和工藝并行設(shè)計(jì)。這迫使開發(fā)商系統(tǒng)地考慮產(chǎn)品的生命周期，從概念到整一個(gè)過程，包括：質(zhì)量，成本，進(jìn)度

48、和用戶的所有需求。</p><p>　　現(xiàn)有的似乎沒有涉及對(duì)一個(gè)區(qū)域的企業(yè)的新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)的任何文件，然而很多學(xué)者指出了創(chuàng)新的過程，通常結(jié)合該地區(qū)工業(yè)發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)的。我們可以觀察區(qū)域文化如何減輕一些限制，當(dāng)然也可以生成其他的。</p><p>　　1.區(qū)域企業(yè)從外部（一些提供特定服務(wù)的機(jī)構(gòu)，有專業(yè)化人才的勞動(dòng)力市場(chǎng)，完善的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，較低的運(yùn)輸成本，經(jīng)濟(jì)更大的交流空間）獲利。但是也會(huì)產(chǎn)生一些行的問

49、題：</p><p>　　(1).信息接收和轉(zhuǎn)變</p><p>　　(2).發(fā)展和管理企業(yè)內(nèi)部關(guān)系存在困難</p><p>　　(3).熟練員工的能力問題</p><p>　　2.另一方面劇烈的勞動(dòng)力分工（專業(yè)化），以及生產(chǎn)任務(wù)分配所賦予的IDS行的特點(diǎn)，阻礙了并行的創(chuàng)新過程的管理。此外，他們阻礙了產(chǎn)品和工藝整體主義的發(fā)展所需要的進(jìn)行有效的

50、的新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)活動(dòng)。因此管理道路只有依賴少數(shù)（主要）開發(fā)任務(wù)的出現(xiàn)。到最后就稱不上是一個(gè)系統(tǒng)的創(chuàng)新性過程了。（Robertson and Laglois（1995）注意到，在過去工業(yè)園區(qū)的企業(yè)得益于快速的信息交流和公司地理上的近距離以及人員的高流動(dòng)性。然而，當(dāng)涉及到創(chuàng)新的變化甚至跨產(chǎn)業(yè)的生產(chǎn)階段，專業(yè)化可能會(huì)阻礙創(chuàng)新，一個(gè)創(chuàng)新點(diǎn)子產(chǎn)生可以為實(shí)現(xiàn)目的為其他需求服務(wù)。此外，通過一個(gè)創(chuàng)新過程階段可以證明在其他階段是次優(yōu)效率的。</p>

51、;<p>　　這個(gè)問題在現(xiàn)在來說特別嚴(yán)重，很多專家都在質(zhì)疑本地系統(tǒng)的未來，在全球話的時(shí)代下，區(qū)域準(zhǔn)則是繼續(xù)保持器生命力，還是開始下降或者是僅僅改變形式？現(xiàn)有的文獻(xiàn)里沒有明確的答案。一方面有人認(rèn)為在全球化的背景下，地區(qū)工業(yè)體制所有的不足之處都彰顯無遺(Ferrucci and Varaldo, 1993; Gottardi, 1996; Grabher, 1993)。另一方面我們發(fā)現(xiàn)有些專家認(rèn)為全球和地方的對(duì)位僅僅是表面的（

52、Becattini, 1999; Porter, 1990, 1998; Fabiani et al., 1998; Signorini, 1994）。有關(guān)文獻(xiàn)表明在幸福競(jìng)爭(zhēng)背景下的本地系統(tǒng)的各種前景。然而還有一種更廣泛的認(rèn)識(shí)，認(rèn)為全球經(jīng)濟(jì)正在改變傳統(tǒng)的領(lǐng)土形式，改變了他們的內(nèi)在關(guān)系，強(qiáng)化他們需要想外的開放程度（Amin, 1993; Rullani and Romano, 1998）。區(qū)內(nèi)企業(yè)，無論是那些處于生產(chǎn)性的末端還是中間的企業(yè)

53、，被迫進(jìn)行諸多改變。最終生產(chǎn)商越來越意識(shí)到組織在產(chǎn)品線價(jià)值定位。其中產(chǎn)品開發(fā)必須置于前列，與此同時(shí)，以前承擔(dān)大部分生產(chǎn)工作的當(dāng)?shù)胤职W(wǎng)絡(luò)現(xiàn)在必須有超</p><p>　　特殊性需要一個(gè)全方位的設(shè)計(jì)方法，應(yīng)考慮到所有的技術(shù)限制，所以產(chǎn)品和工藝技術(shù)階段必須緊密結(jié)合起來。第一部是產(chǎn)品概念，從市場(chǎng)分析結(jié)果，并具有正式的新產(chǎn)品的目標(biāo)。第二步成型，一種新的模式原型是按照原來的構(gòu)思設(shè)計(jì)，使新的Eyewear變得有形的。之間的產(chǎn)

54、品和實(shí)際結(jié)果的美學(xué)思想可以從原型中得到驗(yàn)證，并在同一時(shí)間，由處理的困難和所需的價(jià)格決定。然后產(chǎn)品和工具的設(shè)計(jì)開始，新模型被分解成各個(gè)組成部分（廟宇，環(huán)，罐蓋，罐底，橋梁，掛鉤）和技術(shù)規(guī)范。在這里設(shè)計(jì)的第一個(gè)供應(yīng)商參與。</p><p>　　無論參與者是數(shù)量和類型，協(xié)同設(shè)計(jì)的時(shí)刻來臨。有些供應(yīng)商應(yīng)邀參與開發(fā)，這些被開發(fā)生產(chǎn)的部分的類型和部分和這些供應(yīng)商的產(chǎn)品類似。接下來是成本分析和部分合理化，這里生產(chǎn)成本估算和需要

55、合理話的前階段被定義的部分被檢測(cè)。例如，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化組件可能替代特設(shè)組件，不同的材料被選擇，產(chǎn)品組合也可能被限制等等。當(dāng)設(shè)計(jì)等階段完成之后，必須決定哪些部分需要外包，并且交由哪些供應(yīng)商（采購(gòu)的決策）。這一選擇不僅涉及到部分供應(yīng)商，而且可能是那些能夠進(jìn)行具體操作的小作坊。</p><p>　　一旦設(shè)計(jì)活動(dòng)已經(jīng)完成，模型地選擇，工具設(shè)備地準(zhǔn)備和外部的制造業(yè)開始參與（第二供應(yīng)商參與）重要的是及時(shí)與供應(yīng)商聯(lián)系，以保證其生產(chǎn)能力

56、和固定的工作時(shí)間和交貨時(shí)間，同時(shí)當(dāng)所需要的部分生產(chǎn)出來之后，焊接工具必須也生產(chǎn)出來了。一旦全部交付，裝配周期開始，把環(huán)焊接在一起然后寺廟完成樣品。最后整理包裝，運(yùn)用銷售渠道銷售。</p><p>　　這些新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)定位分析使我們能夠確定中小型企業(yè)面臨的一些典型問題。他們大多數(shù)是組織和管理問題可以概括為：（一）質(zhì)量差或在產(chǎn)品開始的步驟缺乏正規(guī)化，我們認(rèn)為在新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)顯著的改善應(yīng)該由很多階段，活動(dòng)，任務(wù)更加明確重建獲

57、得。（二）創(chuàng)意，技術(shù)，設(shè)計(jì)和生產(chǎn)階段的聯(lián)結(jié)和重疊性較差。（三）為更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)組織協(xié)調(diào)，鏈接不同職責(zé)的能力缺乏。（四）檢測(cè)有限，顳里程碑使得延誤時(shí)有發(fā)生。（五）整合和同步外部貢獻(xiàn)困難，正如前面提到的幾乎在所有的開發(fā)商階段都有發(fā)生。</p><p>　　從下游產(chǎn)品開發(fā)過程分析，我們?cè)噲D賦予個(gè)性的方式來重新評(píng)價(jià)和重新組織這些活動(dòng)。第一種干預(yù)是涉及文化領(lǐng)域也是我們?cè)趧?chuàng)新過程中遇到的主要障礙。假設(shè)，新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)過程中存在的一些

58、根深蒂固的假設(shè)分析公司必須予以改變。下面部分是以知識(shí)為基礎(chǔ)方法得到的新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)的結(jié)果。根據(jù)我們的數(shù)據(jù)和一些專家的意見采訪，一些根深蒂固的假設(shè)阻礙了新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)活動(dòng)改善的改變。例如：從“材料”，“有形”連接到它的“功能性”到無形的，特定風(fēng)格的產(chǎn)品價(jià)值。設(shè)計(jì)師任務(wù)：捕捉顯性和隱性市場(chǎng)的要求，代表一個(gè)視角，加注一種風(fēng)格以確定和集成創(chuàng)新的潛在來源。新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)：開發(fā)一個(gè)連接分布式知識(shí)的過程，是共同的責(zé)任。知識(shí)：隱喻的，多元化發(fā)展，可以作為一個(gè)公司可

59、以一直延續(xù)的財(cái)產(chǎn)。組織設(shè)計(jì)：分層水平下降，具有擴(kuò)展的工作流程和項(xiàng)目管理的跨職能團(tuán)隊(duì)。本地系統(tǒng):語境和隱性知識(shí)的軌道，一種獨(dú)特的能力來源。</p><p>　　在此我們呈現(xiàn)我們關(guān)于改進(jìn)意大利Eyewear區(qū)中小企業(yè)新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)過程規(guī)范化的主要成果。在經(jīng)驗(yàn)證據(jù)的基礎(chǔ)上，對(duì)該產(chǎn)品在其發(fā)展的主要步驟特異性進(jìn)行鑒定。然后強(qiáng)調(diào)中小型企業(yè)所面臨的問題和局限，最后提出給中小企業(yè)新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)提出適當(dāng)?shù)慕鉀Q方法。</p>

60、<p>　　在對(duì)中小企業(yè)新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)活動(dòng)中提到的需到限制都得到了證實(shí)。例如，中小企業(yè)往往拒絕幾個(gè)CE工具的引進(jìn)。多數(shù)單位檢查不顧C(jī)E原則以及能給他們公司帶來的好處。管理資源有限，缺乏重整和不斷改進(jìn)流程的專業(yè)技術(shù)以及不知道如何選擇CE合適的工具等。結(jié)果導(dǎo)致產(chǎn)品開發(fā)步驟缺乏規(guī)范化，各階段聯(lián)結(jié)和重疊性較差，檢測(cè)有限，顳里程碑有限，整合與外部貢獻(xiàn)同步基本不可能。</p><p>　　另一方面，經(jīng)驗(yàn)證據(jù)表明，金融資

61、源稀缺不是真正的障礙。在新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)提出的方法在這里并不需要大量的財(cái)政投資，這主要是以如何提高現(xiàn)有資源分配和使用為基礎(chǔ)的。首先它要求文化態(tài)度的改變。企業(yè)需要了解產(chǎn)品的價(jià)值由無形因素所發(fā)揮的作用，重新定義形象和設(shè)計(jì)師的任務(wù)，將新產(chǎn)品開發(fā)看作是一個(gè)過程，而不是一個(gè)明確的責(zé)任序列。此外，重新審視知識(shí)的重要性。它不僅僅是一個(gè)理論或科學(xué)的想法或?qū)嵺`基地，而是一個(gè)多元化，隱性知識(shí)共享的區(qū)域。</p><p>　　組織設(shè)計(jì)的影響

62、，最主要的是產(chǎn)品開發(fā)，指揮階層，以前認(rèn)為是次要的，因?yàn)樗麄儍H僅包括價(jià)值鏈的末端（比如消費(fèi)者，供應(yīng)商），現(xiàn)在，重新定義其重要性。對(duì)于那些注重知識(shí)方面的企業(yè)來說就顯得更為重要了。他們運(yùn)用傳統(tǒng)的本地系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)，為了運(yùn)用這些獨(dú)特的能力，“關(guān)系構(gòu)架”應(yīng)該得到發(fā)展。我們指出權(quán)利下放政策，對(duì)于延長(zhǎng)的任務(wù)使用跨職能的團(tuán)隊(duì)吧，并通過流程和項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行管理。開發(fā)適當(dāng)?shù)募夹g(shù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施也同樣重要，這不僅意味著物理通道的建立，也是一個(gè)共同的語言，程序和執(zhí)行邏輯，

63、是一個(gè)真正與外部聯(lián)的基礎(chǔ)。</p><p>　　總之，雖然提出了盡可能適用于中小企業(yè)的方法，但是該地區(qū)的環(huán)境會(huì)對(duì)其實(shí)施有一定的影響，產(chǎn)生一些干預(yù)（交易環(huán)境的擴(kuò)展，專業(yè)知識(shí)的共享），對(duì)他人有一定的阻礙（項(xiàng)目形式話和調(diào)度，“同時(shí)”管理的過程）。這些變化是不容易被那些有大生產(chǎn)背景的企業(yè)所了解的，但是可能決定那些中小企業(yè)的未來。</p><p>　　出處：Alberto De Toni, Guid