2023年全國(guó)碩士研究生考試考研英語(yǔ)一試題真題(含答案詳解+作文范文)_第1頁(yè)
已閱讀1頁(yè),還剩26頁(yè)未讀 繼續(xù)免費(fèi)閱讀

下載本文檔

版權(quán)說(shuō)明:本文檔由用戶(hù)提供并上傳,收益歸屬內(nèi)容提供方,若內(nèi)容存在侵權(quán),請(qǐng)進(jìn)行舉報(bào)或認(rèn)領(lǐng)

文檔簡(jiǎn)介

1、<p><b>  中文5900字</b></p><p>  本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)</p><p>  外文參考文獻(xiàn)譯文及原文</p><p>  學(xué) 院 </p><p>  專(zhuān) 業(yè) </p><

2、;p>  年級(jí)班別 </p><p>  學(xué) 號(hào) </p><p>  學(xué)生姓名 </p><p>  指導(dǎo)教師 </p><p>  年 月 日</p&g

3、t;<p>  中小民營(yíng)企業(yè)內(nèi)部控制研究</p><p>  Research on the Internal Control of Small and Medium-sized Private Enterprises</p><p><b>  目錄</b></p><p>  摘要……………………………………………………………

4、……………………1</p><p>  1 選題背景…………………………………………………………………………2</p><p>  2內(nèi)部控制理論的概述 …………….……………………………………………..3</p><p>  2.1 內(nèi)部控制的根本性質(zhì)……………………………………………………….3</p><p>  2.2內(nèi)部控制的責(zé)任…

5、………….……………………………………………….3</p><p>  3 確保內(nèi)部控制的充分性………………………...……………………………….5</p><p>  4 先天的內(nèi)部控制…………………………………………………………………9</p><p>  5 結(jié)論………………………………………………………………………………11</p><p

6、>  Abstract.....................................................................................................................12</p><p>  1 Background Topics.............................................

7、..................................................13</p><p>  2 Internal control theory outlined…………………………………………...……15</p><p>  2.1 The Fundamental Nature Of Intaral Control………………………………..15<

8、;/p><p>  2.2 Responsibillty For Internal Control…………………………………………..15</p><p>  3 Ensuring that the internal control adequacy……………………………….…..17</p><p>  4 Inherent limitations of intern

9、al control…………………………………………22</p><p>  5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...25</p><p><b>  摘 要</b></p><p>  內(nèi)部控制這個(gè)概念已經(jīng)不是一個(gè)新概念。這篇文章將研究每個(gè)公共部門(mén)財(cái)政經(jīng)理和董事會(huì)成員應(yīng)該了解的關(guān)于內(nèi)部控制的內(nèi)容。在

10、分析了虛假的財(cái)政報(bào)告的根本原因以后,Treadway 委員會(huì)把大部分的責(zé)任歸咎于內(nèi)部控制管理的不足。作為回應(yīng),建立Treadway委員會(huì)的各個(gè)組織成立了一個(gè)贊助組織委員會(huì)(COSO),設(shè)法補(bǔ)救的Treadway委員會(huì)揭露出來(lái)的問(wèn)題。</p><p>  COSO為了確保此架構(gòu)足夠及全面的內(nèi)部控制,確定了5個(gè)重要組成部分:1、控制環(huán)境;2、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估;3、政策及程序;4、溝通;5、監(jiān)測(cè)與追蹤。一個(gè)健全的架構(gòu)與內(nèi)部控制

11、是必要的,同時(shí)必須意識(shí)到這類(lèi)框架是難于達(dá)到一個(gè)完美的境界。內(nèi)部控制在本質(zhì)上是一種管理責(zé)任。</p><p><b>  1選題背景</b></p><p>  內(nèi)部控制這個(gè)概念已經(jīng)是毫無(wú)新意的。同樣,由于私營(yíng)部門(mén)最近的丑聞事件使得聯(lián)邦法律重申了這個(gè)經(jīng)常被忽略和議題的重要性,這篇文章將研究每一個(gè)公共部門(mén)的財(cái)政經(jīng)理及董事會(huì)成員還應(yīng)當(dāng)了解內(nèi)部控制的哪些制度。</p&g

12、t;<p>  直到最近幾年,基本問(wèn)題“什么是內(nèi)部控制?”這個(gè)問(wèn)題可以引出一系列的例子:不同職責(zé)的分離,定期進(jìn)行銀行對(duì)賬,獲取的報(bào)告的利用等概念,但是這些并不是內(nèi)部控制的準(zhǔn)確定義。也就是說(shuō),內(nèi)部控制往往被視為一個(gè)集體名詞來(lái)形容不同種類(lèi)的政策和程序,而不是作為一個(gè)獨(dú)立和統(tǒng)一的概念。這就是八十年代中期Treadway委員會(huì)在面對(duì)虛假財(cái)政報(bào)告,需要履行職責(zé)時(shí)所面臨的形勢(shì)。</p><p>  經(jīng)調(diào)查分析提

13、供虛假的財(cái)政報(bào)告的根本原因后,該Treadway委員會(huì)把大部分的責(zé)任歸咎于內(nèi)部控制缺乏管理上,但是在企業(yè)管理者不能夠清楚地了解內(nèi)部控制的真正含義和為什么要重視內(nèi)部控制這個(gè)問(wèn)題上,該委員會(huì)要負(fù)一定的責(zé)任。</p><p>  針對(duì)這些調(diào)查結(jié)果,發(fā)起組織Treadway委員會(huì)的各個(gè)機(jī)構(gòu)成立了一個(gè)協(xié)調(diào)委員會(huì),設(shè)法補(bǔ)救Treadway委員會(huì)揭露出來(lái)的問(wèn)題,這一努力的結(jié)果,是1992年COSO發(fā)布的開(kāi)創(chuàng)性報(bào)告中提到的內(nèi)部控

14、制綜合框架。直到今天,“COSO報(bào)告”依然是在正規(guī)和嚴(yán)肅場(chǎng)合開(kāi)展內(nèi)部控制的討論的重要基礎(chǔ)。</p><p>  在私營(yíng)部門(mén),COSO報(bào)告規(guī)定的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)通常用于評(píng)價(jià)內(nèi)部控制,包括授權(quán)公司進(jìn)行公開(kāi)交易,這是由于安然和世界通訊的丑聞,使聯(lián)邦的Sarbanes-Oxley法規(guī)對(duì)內(nèi)部控制進(jìn)行了規(guī)定。在公共部門(mén),政府財(cái)政官員協(xié)會(huì)在最近推薦的做法中的立場(chǎng)是政府的財(cái)政管理為了履行自己的道德責(zé)任,應(yīng)“獲取信息和負(fù)責(zé)內(nèi)部控制所需的有意義

15、的培訓(xùn)”、特別是正確理解內(nèi)部控制(COSO)的規(guī)定。</p><p>  2 內(nèi)部控制理論的概述</p><p>  2.1內(nèi)部控制的根本性質(zhì)</p><p>  無(wú)論是哪種性質(zhì)的組織(即公、私、或非營(yíng)利性),所有的管理者都必須致力于:(1)、經(jīng)營(yíng)效率;(2)、制作真實(shí)可靠的外部財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告;(3)、遵守適用的法律和法規(guī)。</p><p>  負(fù)

16、責(zé)任的管理人員不能脫離這些目標(biāo),相反,他們必須采取具體行動(dòng),以確保經(jīng)營(yíng)運(yùn)作的有效性和高效率、財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告的真實(shí)可靠并且不違背法律法規(guī)的規(guī)定。也就是這些行為構(gòu)成的內(nèi)部控制。不同的是,內(nèi)部控制可以定義為管理上使用的用以確保實(shí)現(xiàn)其目標(biāo)的工具和技術(shù)的總稱(chēng)。因此,在本質(zhì)上,內(nèi)部控制在根本上是一個(gè)管理問(wèn)題。</p><p>  2.2內(nèi)部控制的責(zé)任</p><p>  以下一個(gè)類(lèi)比可能有助于指派負(fù)責(zé)內(nèi)部控

17、制的管理者、董事會(huì)成員和審計(jì)員正確理解內(nèi)部控制的責(zé)任和職能。“學(xué)生主要是負(fù)責(zé)完成功課。”給學(xué)生分配這種首要的責(zé)任是實(shí)際的,因?yàn)橥瓿晒φn任務(wù)的目標(biāo)是提高學(xué)生的技能,為學(xué)生完成功課而又不影響學(xué)生技能的提高的情況是不可能存在的。家長(zhǎng)、導(dǎo)師或同學(xué)可以在學(xué)生完成某一項(xiàng)任務(wù)時(shí)提供幫助,但是最終只有學(xué)生本人的直接參與,才能達(dá)到提高技能的目的。當(dāng)然,這并不是說(shuō),父母或監(jiān)護(hù)人以功課是學(xué)生的主要責(zé)任為理由來(lái)為自己開(kāi)脫責(zé)任。父母或監(jiān)護(hù)人的最終職責(zé)是確保學(xué)生為

18、他自己的功課負(fù)責(zé),雖然家長(zhǎng)或監(jiān)護(hù)人實(shí)際上不能幫助學(xué)生完成功課,但他們有權(quán)利監(jiān)督學(xué)生完成功課。最后,教師和輔導(dǎo)員,他們?yōu)閷W(xué)生和家長(zhǎng)、監(jiān)護(hù)人提供寶貴的幫助,是不能取代的。最終,如果學(xué)生的功課不能按時(shí)完成,最終的責(zé)任由家長(zhǎng)或監(jiān)護(hù)人來(lái)承擔(dān)。</p><p>  這個(gè)比喻表明了內(nèi)部控制實(shí)際的含義,我們可以將上述例子中的學(xué)生、家長(zhǎng)或監(jiān)護(hù)人、教師分別代表管理、理事會(huì)委員和內(nèi)部審計(jì)師,這有助于理解內(nèi)部控制中各人的職責(zé)所在。正如我

19、們剛才解釋的,內(nèi)部控制是一個(gè)根本的管理問(wèn)題(即管理者用工具和技術(shù)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)管理目標(biāo)),因此,管理是內(nèi)部控制的主要責(zé)任所在。但是董事會(huì)的成員不能因?yàn)閮?nèi)部管理是管理層的主要職責(zé)而對(duì)內(nèi)部管理袖手旁觀,因?yàn)樗墓ぷ魇谴_保管理符合其所有責(zé)任。因此,內(nèi)部控制的最終責(zé)任由董事會(huì)來(lái)承擔(dān)。獨(dú)立的內(nèi)部審計(jì)師,就像一位老師,他可以為管理的成功提供必要的援助(制作真實(shí)可靠的財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)表),但即使是最好的老師也無(wú)法幫助學(xué)生、家長(zhǎng)或監(jiān)護(hù)人完成原本屬于他們的責(zé)任及任務(wù)。最后

20、,內(nèi)部審計(jì)師,作為一個(gè)重要的角色,像老師一樣幫助他們達(dá)到目標(biāo)。盡管如此,內(nèi)部審計(jì)員在內(nèi)部控制制度中能做的也只是協(xié)助管理,而不取代它。</p><p>  當(dāng)然,有一件事必須堅(jiān)持的是,理事會(huì)要承擔(dān)內(nèi)部控制的最終責(zé)任。主要的問(wèn)題仍然是:“理事會(huì)怎么有效地履行它在這方面的責(zé)任?”最現(xiàn)實(shí)的辦法是成立一個(gè)審計(jì)委員會(huì),最好能做為中心點(diǎn),在董事會(huì)的內(nèi)部控制方面努力,確保整個(gè)內(nèi)部控制的問(wèn)題能夠定期提交給董事會(huì)進(jìn)行及時(shí)處理。同樣,

21、內(nèi)部審計(jì)員的作用是,可幫助經(jīng)理人,完成他們內(nèi)部控制的主要任務(wù),尤其是一個(gè)綱領(lǐng)性而非金融背景的主管,他們可能不熟悉內(nèi)部控制。</p><p>  3確保內(nèi)部控制的充分性</p><p>  一旦管理與理事會(huì)在內(nèi)部控制中共同承擔(dān)各自的責(zé)任,怎樣才能知道自己是否真正履行了自己的義務(wù)?多少控制才是合適的呢?</p><p>  在COSO報(bào)告中,內(nèi)部控制(復(fù)數(shù))比內(nèi)部控制(

22、單數(shù))更常見(jiàn),然而,COSO中內(nèi)部控制更多地被視為它各部分的總和(個(gè)別政策和程序)。在美國(guó),COSO憧憬將內(nèi)部控制的個(gè)人控制元件或部件都集成一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的結(jié)構(gòu)或架構(gòu)納入其中,即COSO提供一個(gè)整體內(nèi)部控制的概念來(lái)代替早期的零敲碎打。COSO為確保架構(gòu)內(nèi)的內(nèi)部控制是否足夠或全面,還確定了需要加以實(shí)施的五項(xiàng)重要組成部分:</p><p>  1、必須有完善的控制環(huán)境(企業(yè)文化);</p><p>

23、  2、必須有一個(gè)定期的連續(xù)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估;</p><p>  3、必須設(shè)計(jì)、實(shí)施、維持相關(guān)的政策和程序,從而確定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的處理;</p><p>  4、必須有充分的溝通;</p><p>  5、必須設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)定期和持續(xù)地監(jiān)測(cè)防治相關(guān)的政策和程序,以確保它們能持續(xù)發(fā)揮作用,使得任何問(wèn)題都可以得到妥善處理。</p><p>  控制環(huán)境。用比喻更可

24、能有助于了解主要的控制環(huán)境。小孩子不是在孤立的環(huán)境中長(zhǎng)大的,而是在被特定的人所包圍的特定環(huán)境中長(zhǎng)大的。這樣的環(huán)境可能會(huì)對(duì)孩子的成長(zhǎng)產(chǎn)生深遠(yuǎn)的影響,因此,一個(gè)只有有限潛能的孩子也許是在一個(gè)充滿(mǎn)生機(jī)和機(jī)會(huì)的富裕環(huán)境中成長(zhǎng)并發(fā)揮潛能,一個(gè)擁有巨大潛能的孩子也許會(huì)在不利的環(huán)境中成長(zhǎng),潛能被埋沒(méi)了。</p><p>  內(nèi)部控制也并非是在真空狀態(tài)。內(nèi)部控制無(wú)可避免的會(huì)受到周?chē)h(huán)境或企業(yè)文化或好或壞的影響。事實(shí)上,最終要取得

25、成功的內(nèi)部控制是不可能夸大到對(duì)周遭環(huán)境的控制的。在周遭對(duì)內(nèi)部控制持冷漠態(tài)度甚至充滿(mǎn)敵意(這么多的“繁文縟節(jié)”需要“穿越”才能辦妥工作)的環(huán)境下,就算有最佳的政策和程序,也沒(méi)有多大的希望得到有效的發(fā)展。反之,一種顯然是支持內(nèi)部控制的環(huán)境可以得到最妥善的甚至是最基本的控制政策和程序。</p><p>  關(guān)鍵在于健全的內(nèi)部控制環(huán)境以及積極支持的環(huán)境。管理難以支持的東西,它不理解(因此,管理在內(nèi)部控制上必須對(duì)COSO的

26、指導(dǎo)性?xún)?nèi)容相當(dāng)熟悉,這是GFOA在較早前提出的要求)。同樣地,有效的支持不是空談,時(shí)間和資源也是其中的重要部分。</p><p>  此外,管理者的以身作則是非常重要的。很多時(shí)候,經(jīng)理人似乎認(rèn)為,內(nèi)部控制僅僅是對(duì)他們的部屬,那就是經(jīng)理人采取措施對(duì)那些向他們匯報(bào)的下屬實(shí)施控制。當(dāng)然,這種做法可能的結(jié)果就是員工會(huì)把內(nèi)部控制視為一種規(guī)避(證明其級(jí)別和重要性的組織),而不是視作一種避免。</p><p

27、>  一個(gè)特別重要的例子,該原則只是針對(duì)違反相關(guān)政策和程序的控制討論關(guān)于管理的問(wèn)題。管理人員為了避免發(fā)生沖突,并沒(méi)有對(duì)某些措施采取有效的紀(jì)律處分,即使某些情況是涉及欺詐的。無(wú)可避免的是,這樣的做法對(duì)其他人發(fā)出了一個(gè)明確且危險(xiǎn)的訊息:內(nèi)部控制和管理并不是很?chē)?yán)格。</p><p>  當(dāng)然,一個(gè)積極的審計(jì)委員會(huì)和有效的內(nèi)部審計(jì)部門(mén),都是宏觀控制環(huán)境中重要的積極因素。</p><p>  

28、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估。在管理者實(shí)現(xiàn)其目標(biāo)(即風(fēng)險(xiǎn))的過(guò)程當(dāng)中,挑戰(zhàn)是永遠(yuǎn)存在的。此外,昨天的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和今天的、明天的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不一定相同。因此,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估是不可能憑“一次性”的努力就可以完成,而必須是定期的、持續(xù)進(jìn)行的過(guò)程。同樣,為了使他們能夠避免或減輕風(fēng)險(xiǎn),風(fēng)險(xiǎn)必須是可預(yù)期的。打個(gè)比方,在鐵道路口設(shè)置路燈可避免一個(gè)重大事故的發(fā)生,同樣,如果此前的入口或交通情況發(fā)生變化,路燈在鐵道路口設(shè)置就顯得越來(lái)越有必要。</p><p>  那么,

29、經(jīng)理人需怎樣才能設(shè)法找出以前未知的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)呢?首先,管理應(yīng)把注意力集中在改變上,因?yàn)樗械淖兓紩?huì)涉及一定程度的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。可以帶來(lái)高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的變化包括以下:</p><p>  1、經(jīng)營(yíng)環(huán)境的改變(例如,改變企業(yè)內(nèi)部的規(guī)章制度);</p><p>  2、人事變動(dòng)(特別是敏感職位的變動(dòng));</p><p>  3、信息系統(tǒng)和技術(shù)的改變(例如,如果過(guò)程已被重新設(shè)計(jì),控制程度是否仍

30、然足夠?)</p><p>  4、快速增長(zhǎng)(例如,為應(yīng)付需求增加而施加的壓力);</p><p>  5、新的項(xiàng)目和服務(wù)(例如,缺乏經(jīng)驗(yàn));</p><p>  6、結(jié)構(gòu)變化(例如,取消原項(xiàng)目的實(shí)施)。</p><p>  經(jīng)理也應(yīng)考慮目前的固定風(fēng)險(xiǎn),并處理高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的情況。一般的內(nèi)存高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)包括以下:</p><p> 

31、 1、復(fù)雜度(越復(fù)雜越容易出錯(cuò));</p><p><b>  2、現(xiàn)金收入;</b></p><p>  3、直接第三方受益人(現(xiàn)金支付幫助個(gè)人);</p><p>  4、以前遇到的問(wèn)題(過(guò)去存在問(wèn)題的項(xiàng)目很可能會(huì)繼續(xù)遇到相同的問(wèn)題);</p><p>  5、事先確定的控制弱點(diǎn)(查明的問(wèn)題在過(guò)去沒(méi)有得到糾正的情形)

32、。</p><p>  政策及程序。作為管理者必須分析當(dāng)前和今后潛在的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。由于其進(jìn)行風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估,所以他們必須采取切實(shí)有效的措施來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)和實(shí)施具體的相關(guān)政策和程序,以避免和盡量減少這些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。傳統(tǒng)上,與控制相關(guān)的財(cái)政政策和程序通??蓜澐譃橐韵聨讉€(gè)基本類(lèi)別:</p><p>  1、授權(quán)(所有交易需適當(dāng)授權(quán));</p><p>  2、妥善記錄(記錄應(yīng)旨在突出遺失物品);&

33、lt;/p><p>  3、安全的資產(chǎn)和檔案(資產(chǎn)和檔案,應(yīng)該受到保護(hù),且只提供給有需要的人);</p><p>  4、不相容職務(wù)(理想的情況下,個(gè)別員工不應(yīng)該在的職位上犯下隱瞞違規(guī)的事);</p><p>  5、定期核對(duì)(會(huì)計(jì)記錄應(yīng)定期加以對(duì)比和調(diào)和);</p><p>  6、定期復(fù)查(會(huì)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)應(yīng)定期比較它們代表的實(shí)際項(xiàng)目);</p

34、><p>  7、分析性復(fù)核(比較各項(xiàng)財(cái)務(wù)數(shù)據(jù),并評(píng)估這些數(shù)據(jù)和其他數(shù)據(jù),包括金融的、非金融的,以及預(yù)期的)。</p><p>  具體防治的相關(guān)政策及程序,也可以分為兩派,旨在消除實(shí)際問(wèn)題(如消防系統(tǒng));以局部的目標(biāo),使管理人員注意到潛在的問(wèn)題,使他們能夠及時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)問(wèn)題(如煙霧報(bào)警器)。這個(gè)重要的區(qū)別會(huì)在討論中顯示出來(lái)。</p><p>  溝通。與其他四個(gè)組成部分不同

35、的是,溝通通常不是單獨(dú)存在的。相反,它是其余各部分能夠有效運(yùn)作的基礎(chǔ)。舉例來(lái)說(shuō),一個(gè)良好的控制環(huán)境,需要各級(jí)管理部門(mén)之間以及管理人員與非管理人員之間良好的溝通才能形成。的確,COSO為了強(qiáng)調(diào)溝通的重要性,把它作為一個(gè)單獨(dú)的組件與其他幾個(gè)部分共同組成了一個(gè)全面的框架。</p><p>  尤為要注意的是,財(cái)務(wù)經(jīng)理是從消費(fèi)者的角度記錄與會(huì)計(jì)有相關(guān)的和政策和程序。傳統(tǒng)的會(huì)計(jì)政策和程序手冊(cè)就是普遍應(yīng)用于此目的。最近,政府

36、已經(jīng)開(kāi)始使用內(nèi)部網(wǎng)絡(luò),以確保工作人員能夠隨時(shí)獲得最新的信息。當(dāng)然,經(jīng)理人也有能力左右控制它們的建立。</p><p>  因?yàn)槿f(wàn)一發(fā)生不可避免的管理風(fēng)險(xiǎn),給員工提供一個(gè)明確的沒(méi)有經(jīng)理左右的溝通方式是非常重要的。</p><p>  并非所有類(lèi)型的信息都是同樣具有緊迫性的。舉例說(shuō),違規(guī)和舞弊,是必須立即傳達(dá)給有關(guān)部門(mén)的,而定期報(bào)告則可能需要準(zhǔn)備較多相對(duì)不敏感的與控制相關(guān)的資料才能傳達(dá)。良好的

37、溝通可以確保信息的加速傳達(dá)也是符合這樣的考慮。</p><p>  監(jiān)測(cè)。第五個(gè)也就是最后一個(gè)內(nèi)部控制綜合性框架的組成部分是監(jiān)測(cè)。正如再好的房屋也需要定期保養(yǎng)和不定期保養(yǎng),有關(guān)控制的政策和程序也會(huì)隨著時(shí)間的推移而變得不相適應(yīng)。因此,管理者必須定期評(píng)價(jià)其與控制相關(guān)的政策和程序,以確保他們能得到很好的落實(shí),并確保的業(yè)務(wù)能夠充分的展開(kāi)。</p><p>  同樣重要的是,許多與控制有關(guān)的政策和程

38、序,都旨在提醒管理過(guò)程中潛在發(fā)生的問(wèn)題,而不是真正的杜絕問(wèn)題。因此,監(jiān)測(cè)的一個(gè)重要因素是,如何評(píng)價(jià)從過(guò)去的跡象顯示可能發(fā)生的錯(cuò)誤和違反相關(guān)政策和程序有關(guān)規(guī)定的問(wèn)題已被處理。</p><p><b>  4先天的內(nèi)部控制</b></p><p>  一個(gè)健全的架構(gòu),內(nèi)部控制是必不可少的,但重要的是要記住,沒(méi)有這種框架,將永遠(yuǎn)不會(huì)完美。例如,像前面解釋過(guò)的,經(jīng)理通常有能力

39、建立凌駕一切與控制相關(guān)的政策和程序。另外,控制的不相容職務(wù)通??梢酝ㄟ^(guò)合作而避開(kāi)(即個(gè)人會(huì)以控制他人來(lái)代替共同工作)。最后,也是最重要的,不宜實(shí)行與控制相關(guān)的政策或程序,從而結(jié)束了耗資超過(guò)合理預(yù)期實(shí)現(xiàn)的收益的情況。所以,舉例來(lái)說(shuō),它有時(shí)未必可全面貫徹不相容職務(wù),在這種情況下可能需要進(jìn)行改聘的方法(可能不太有效)來(lái)替代。</p><p>  企業(yè)內(nèi)部控制的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理</p><p>  如前所

40、述, COSO報(bào)告是在1992年關(guān)于內(nèi)部控制的嚴(yán)格討論中形成的。COSO從未改變過(guò)在1992年發(fā)表的內(nèi)部控制綜合框架的使命,相反,安理會(huì)決定加強(qiáng)其關(guān)于企業(yè)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理的內(nèi)部控制工作。這樣的結(jié)果是美國(guó)在2004年出版了企業(yè)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理—整合框架(COSOⅡ)。</p><p>  COSOⅡ論述了企業(yè)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理:</p><p>  一個(gè)過(guò)程會(huì)受到公司董事會(huì)、管理人員和其他人員的影響,跨企業(yè)的應(yīng)用策

41、略的制訂,旨在找出可能會(huì)發(fā)生的影響組織的事件,而風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理可對(duì)實(shí)現(xiàn)組織目標(biāo)提供合理的保證。這個(gè)過(guò)程必然會(huì)涉及到組織中的個(gè)體以及組織這個(gè)整體。</p><p>  根據(jù)COSOⅡ,綜合性的企業(yè)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理架構(gòu),是指提供合理的保證:(1)組織目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn);(2)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理就是意識(shí)到風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可能影響了他們的業(yè)績(jī)。</p><p>  COSOⅡ相對(duì)于原COSO報(bào)告,重申了三個(gè)基本管理目標(biāo):行動(dòng)(效益和效率);

42、報(bào)導(dǎo)(擴(kuò)大到包括財(cái)政和內(nèi)部報(bào)告);服從。而且還確定了新的第四類(lèi)戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo),這可以描述為一個(gè)“高層次”,因?yàn)樗械钠渌繕?biāo)將需要加以調(diào)整來(lái)適應(yīng)它。</p><p>  COSOⅡ?yàn)閺?qiáng)調(diào)企業(yè)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理,把由四個(gè)單獨(dú)部分(其中包括被稱(chēng)為“風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估”的部分)組成的架構(gòu),擴(kuò)大到由八個(gè)部分組成的完整的企業(yè)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理架構(gòu):</p><p>  1、內(nèi)部環(huán)境(包括一個(gè)組織對(duì)損失和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的容忍度);</p&g

43、t;<p>  2、目標(biāo)設(shè)定(為風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估提供支持,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)被定義為能妨礙一個(gè)組織實(shí)現(xiàn)其目標(biāo)的因素);</p><p>  3、事件識(shí)別(包括積極的機(jī)會(huì)和消極的風(fēng)險(xiǎn));</p><p>  4、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估(風(fēng)險(xiǎn)反應(yīng)-內(nèi)在風(fēng)險(xiǎn));</p><p>  5、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)反應(yīng)(決定減少、分享或接受固有的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),使剩余的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)與組織的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)相符);</p><p

44、>  6、活動(dòng)控制(應(yīng)對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的具體步驟);</p><p>  7、信息和溝通(專(zhuān)門(mén)有一條規(guī)定:管理凌駕于“上級(jí)匯報(bào)”之上);</p><p><b>  8、監(jiān)測(cè)。</b></p><p><b>  5結(jié)論</b></p><p>  內(nèi)部控制,就其性質(zhì)而言,基本上是一種管理責(zé)任。管理部門(mén)

45、的職責(zé),已大大加劇了后期私營(yíng)部門(mén)對(duì)內(nèi)部控制的重視,如聯(lián)邦政府的法律法規(guī)Sarbanes-Oxley。GFOA已明確表示公共部門(mén)的財(cái)務(wù)經(jīng)理,有義務(wù)去了解GFOA的實(shí)務(wù)專(zhuān)業(yè)理論,并履行其在內(nèi)部控制中的責(zé)任。首先,履行這些義務(wù)是為了讓各管理人員熟悉COSO報(bào)告中對(duì)內(nèi)部控制的理解。同樣,公共部門(mén)的理事,因?yàn)槠渥罱K責(zé)任是確保管理人員完成其內(nèi)部控制問(wèn)題中的責(zé)任,因此他應(yīng)更熟悉COSO報(bào)告中完善內(nèi)部控制架構(gòu)的內(nèi)容,才能更好地進(jìn)行管理問(wèn)責(zé)。</p

46、><p><b>  Abstract</b></p><p>  The concept of internal control is hardly new. This article will examine what every public sector financial manager and board member should know about in

47、ternal control. After examining the underlying causes of fraudulent financial reporting, the Treadway Commission placed much of the blame on inadequate managerial involvement with internal control. In response, the vario

48、us organizations that sponsored the Treadway Commission formed an ongoing Committee of Sponsoring Organizations (COSO) that sou</p><p>  COSO identified five essential components that needed to be in place t

49、o ensure that such a framework of internal control is adequate or comprehensive: 1. control environment, 2. assessment of risk, 3. policies and procedures, 4. communication, and 5. monitoring. While a sound framework of

50、internal control is essential, it is important to bear in mind that no such framework can ever be perfect. Internal control, by its very nature, is essentially a managerial responsibility.</p><p>  1 Backgro

51、und Topics</p><p>  The concept of internal control is hardly new. All the same, recent private sector scandals and subsequent federal legislation have significantly renewed interest in this important, but f

52、requently neglected topic. This article will examine what every public sector financial manager and board member should know about internal control.</p><p>  Until recent years, a response to the basic quest

53、ion, "What is internal control?" likely would have elicited a series of examples-segregation of incompatible duties, periodic bank reconciliations, use of receiving reports - rather than a true definition. That

54、 is to say, internal control tended to be viewed as a collective term used to describe a disparate assortment of policies and procedures rather than as a separate and coherent concept in its own right. Such was the situa

55、tion that confronted </p><p>  After examining the underlying causes of fraudulent financial reporting, the Treadway Commission placed much of the blame on inadequate managerial involvement with internal con

56、trol. The commission assigned at least partial responsibility for this lack of involvement to a general failure to provide managers with a clear understanding of what internal control really is and why it should be a mat

57、ter of concern to them.</p><p>  In response to these findings, the various organizations that sponsored the Treadway Commission formed an ongoing Committee of Sponsoring Organizations that sought to remedy

58、the deficiencies exposed by the Treadway Commission. The result of this effort was the groundbreaking report Internal Control - Integrated Framework, which was released by COSO in 1992. To this day, the "COSO Report

59、" serves as the essential foundation for any serious discussion of internal control.</p><p>  In the private sector, the COSO Report provides the criteria normally used for evaluating internal control,

60、including the internal control assessments mandated for publicly traded companies by the federal Sarbanes-Oxley legislation that was passed in the wake of the Enron and WorldCom scandals. In the public sector, the Govern

61、ment Finance Officers Association in a recent recommended practice has taken the position that government financial managers, in fulfillment of their ethical responsibiliti</p><p>  2 Internal control theory

62、 outlined</p><p>  2.1 THE FUNDAMENTAL NATURE OF INTERNAL CONTROL</p><p>  Regardless of the sector within which they serve (i.e., public, private, or not-for-profit), all managers must strive t

63、o: ( 1 ) operate effectively and efficiently, (2) produce reliable external financial reports, and (3) comply with applicable laws and regulations.</p><p>  Responsible managers cannot leave the achievement

64、of these objectives to chance. Rather, they must take concrete action to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of operalions, reliable financial reporting, and legal and regulatory compliance. It is the sum of these ac

65、tions that constitute internal control. Put differently, internal control could be defined as the sum of the tools and techniques used by management to ensure that it achieves its objectives. Thus, by its very nature, in

66、ternal con</p><p>  2.2 RESPONSIBILITY FOR INTERNAL CONTROL</p><p>  An analogy may be useful in understanding the proper assignment of responsibility for internal control among managers, board

67、members, and auditors. A student is primarily responsible for completing homework assignments. The reason for assigning primary responsibility to the student is as much practical as it is ethical; since the purpose of a

68、homework assignment is to sharpen the student's skills, no one else can do a student's homework for the student without fundamentally compromising that obj</p><p>  That is not to say, of course, tha

69、t parents or guardians can somehow absolve themselves of their own responsibility for the completion of their charges' homework on the grounds that it is the student who is primarily responsible. Parents or guardians

70、 remain ultimately responsible for ensuring that a student meets his or her responsibility for homework. Although parents or guardians cannot actually do the homework for the student, they have a duty to make sure the st

71、udent does so. Finally, teache</p><p>  This analogy holds true for internal control if the students, parents or guardians, teachers, and tutors of the previous example are replaced by management, the govern

72、ing board, the independent auditor, and the internal auditor. Management is primarily responsible for internal control, because internal control, as explained earlier, is, by its very nature, fundamentally a management c

73、oncern (i.e., the tools and techniques used by managers to achieve management objectives). Board members, in turn</p><p>  It is one thing, of course, to insist that the governing board is ultimately respons

74、ible for internal control. The real issue remains: "How can a governing board effectively fulfill its responsibility in this regard?" The most practical solution is to establish an audit committee, which ideall

75、y can serve the focal point for the board's internal control-related efforts, ensuring that the whole matter of internal control is regularly brought before the board for its attention and dealt with approp</p>

76、<p>  3 Ensuring that the internal control adequacy</p><p>  Once management and the governing board have assumed their respective responsibility for internal control, how can they know that they have

77、 truly fulfilled their obligations? How much control is enough?</p><p>  Before the COSO Report, it was more common to speak of internal controls (plural) than of internal control (singular). COSO, however,

78、viewed internal control as much more than the sum of its parts (individual policies and procedures). COSO envisioned internal control as a unified structure or framework into which individual control elements or componen

79、ts are integrated. That is, COSO offered a conceptually holistic approach to internal control in place of the earlier, essentially piecemeal appro</p><p>  * There must be a sound control environment ("

80、corporate culture")</p><p>  * There must be a regular, ongoing assessment of risk</p><p>  * Control-related policies and procedures must be designed, implemented, and maintained to addres

81、s the risks thus identified</p><p>  * There must be adequate communication</p><p>  * There must be a regular and ongoing monitoring of control-related policies and procedures to ensure that th

82、ey continue to function as designed and that any problems disclosed are handled appropriately</p><p>  Control environment. An analogy once again may be useful for understanding the importance of the control

83、 environment. Children do not grow up in isolation, but rather surrounded by specific individuals in specific circumstances. This environment can have a profound impact on a child's development. Thus, a child with on

84、ly limited gifts may flourish in a supportive and opportunity-rich environment, whereas a child with much greater potential may languish in a dysfunctional setting.</p><p>  Internal control also does not fu

85、nction in a vacuum. It is inevitably affected, for better or worse, by the surrounding environment or "corporate culture." Indeed, it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the ambient control environmen

86、t to the ultimate success of internal control. The best designed policies and procedures have little hope of being effective in an environment where internal control is viewed with indifference or even hostility (so much

87、 "red tape" to be "cut through" to ge</p><p>  The key to a sound control environment is management's informed and active support for internal control. Management can hardly be suppor

88、tive of something it does not understand (thus the GFOA recommendation mentioned earlier regarding the need for management to become familiar with the COSO guidance on internal control). Likewise, effective support must

89、involve more than just words; time and resources also have to be a part of the equation.</p><p>  In addition, there is no substitute for management leading by example. All too often, managers appear to beli

90、eve in internal control - but only for their subordinates! That is, managers wish to exempt themselves from the very controls they place on those who report to them. Of course, the likely outcome of such an approach is t

91、hat employees will view the circumvention of internal control as something to be desired (evidence of their rank and importance within the organization) rather than as som</p><p>  One particularly important

92、 example of the principle just discussed is management's response to violations of control-related policies and procedures. All too frequently, managers seek to avoid confrontation, even in situations involving fraud

93、, and thus fail to take effective disciplinary action. Almost inevitably, such a response sends the clear and dangerous message to others that management is not really serious about internal control.</p><p>

94、  Naturally, an active audit committee and an effective internal audit function are significant positive factors in an entity's control environment.</p><p>  Assessment of risk. There will always be chal

95、lenges in the path of management's achieving its objectives (i.e., risks). Moreover, yesterday's risks will not necessarily be the same as today's or tomorrow's. Accordingly, risk assessment cannot be a &

96、quot;one-time" effort, but must be a regular, ongoing process. Likewise, risks must be anticipated so they can be avoided or mitigated to the greatest extent possible. To revert to analogy, the time to install light

97、s at a railway crossing is before a major</p><p>  How then should managers go about the process of trying to identify previously unidentified risks? First, management should focus its attention on change, b

98、ecause all change involves some element of risk. Examples of types of change that can entail a high degree of risk include the following:</p><p>  * Changes in the operating environment (e.g., changes in reg

99、ulations)</p><p>  * Changes in personnel (especially in sensitive positions)</p><p>  * Changes in information systems and technology (e.g., if processes have been reengineered, are control pro

100、cedures still adequate?)</p><p>  * Rapid growth (e.g., pressure to "cut comers" to meet increased demand)</p><p>  * New programs and services (e.g., lack of experience)</p>&l

101、t;p>  * Changes in structure (e.g., elimination of a program)</p><p>  Managers also should consider inherent risk, which involves the notion that certain situations, even when they are ongoing, involve h

102、eightened levels of risk. Examples of situations that typically involve a high degree of inherent risk include the following:</p><p>  * Complexity (the more that can go wrong, the more that will go wrong)&l

溫馨提示

  • 1. 本站所有資源如無(wú)特殊說(shuō)明,都需要本地電腦安裝OFFICE2007和PDF閱讀器。圖紙軟件為CAD,CAXA,PROE,UG,SolidWorks等.壓縮文件請(qǐng)下載最新的WinRAR軟件解壓。
  • 2. 本站的文檔不包含任何第三方提供的附件圖紙等,如果需要附件,請(qǐng)聯(lián)系上傳者。文件的所有權(quán)益歸上傳用戶(hù)所有。
  • 3. 本站RAR壓縮包中若帶圖紙,網(wǎng)頁(yè)內(nèi)容里面會(huì)有圖紙預(yù)覽,若沒(méi)有圖紙預(yù)覽就沒(méi)有圖紙。
  • 4. 未經(jīng)權(quán)益所有人同意不得將文件中的內(nèi)容挪作商業(yè)或盈利用途。
  • 5. 眾賞文庫(kù)僅提供信息存儲(chǔ)空間,僅對(duì)用戶(hù)上傳內(nèi)容的表現(xiàn)方式做保護(hù)處理,對(duì)用戶(hù)上傳分享的文檔內(nèi)容本身不做任何修改或編輯,并不能對(duì)任何下載內(nèi)容負(fù)責(zé)。
  • 6. 下載文件中如有侵權(quán)或不適當(dāng)內(nèi)容,請(qǐng)與我們聯(lián)系,我們立即糾正。
  • 7. 本站不保證下載資源的準(zhǔn)確性、安全性和完整性, 同時(shí)也不承擔(dān)用戶(hù)因使用這些下載資源對(duì)自己和他人造成任何形式的傷害或損失。

評(píng)論

0/150

提交評(píng)論