藥學(xué)英語第五版原文翻譯

1、IntroductiontoPhysiologyIntroductionPhysiologyisthestudyofthefunctionsoflivingmatter.Itisconcernedwithhowanganismperfmsitsvariedactivities:howitfeedshowitmoveshowitadaptstochangingcircumstanceshowitspawnsnewgenerations.T

2、hesubjectisvastembracesthewholeoflife.Thesuccessofphysiologyinexplaininghowganismsperfmtheirdailytasksisbasedonthenotionthattheyareintricateexquisitemachineswhoseoperationisgovernedbythelawsofphysicschemistry.Althoughsom

3、eprocessesaresimilaracrossthewholespectrumofbiology—thereplicationofthegeiccodefexample—manyarespecifictoparticulargroupsofganisms.Fthisreasonitisnecessarytodividethesubjectintovariouspartssuchasbacterialphysiologyplantp

4、hysiologyanimalphysiology.Tostudyhowananimalwksitisfirstnecessarytoknowhowitisbuilt.Afullappreciationofthephysiologyofanganismmusttherefebebasedonasoundknowledgeofitsanatomy.Experimentscanthenbecarriedouttoestablishhowpa

5、rticularpartsperfmtheirfunctions.Althoughtherehavebeenmanyimptantphysiologicalinvestigationsonhumanvolunteerstheneedfprecisecontrolovertheexperimentalconditionshasmeantthatmuchofourpresentphysiologicalknowledgehasbeender

6、ivedfromstudiesonotheranimalssuchasfrogsrabbitscatsdogs.Whenitisclearthataspecificphysiologicalprocesshasacommonbasisinawidevarietyofanimalspeciesitisreasonabletoassumethatthesameprincipleswillapplytohumans.Theknowledgeg

7、ainedfromthisapproachhasgivenusagreatinsightintohumanphysiologyendoweduswithasolidfoundationftheeffectivetreatmentofmanydiseases.Thebuildingblocksofthebodyarethecellswhicharegroupedtogethertofmtissues.Theprincipaltypesof

8、tissueareepithelialconnectivenervousmusculareachwithitsownacteristics.Manyconnectivetissueshaverelativelyfewcellsbuthaveanextensiveextracellularmatrix.Incontrastsmoothmuscleconsistsofdenselypackedlayersofmusclecellslinke

9、dtogetherviaspecificcelljunctions.ganssuchasthebraintheheartthelungstheintestinestheliverarefmedbytheaggregationofdifferentkindsoftissues.Thegansarethemselvespartsofdistinctphysiologicalsystems.Theheartbloodvesselsfmthec

10、ardiovularsystemthelungstracheabronchitogetherwiththechestwalldiaphragmfmtherespiratysystemtheskeletonskeletalmusclesfmthemusculoskeletalsystemthebrainspinalcdautonomicnervesgangliaperipheralsomaticnervesfmthenervoussyst

11、emsoon.Cellsdifferwidelyinfmfunctionbuttheyallhavecertaincommonacteristics.Firstlytheyareboundedbyalimitingmembranetheplasmamembrane.Secondlytheyhavetheabilitytobreakdownlargemoleculestosmalleronestoliberateenergyftheira

12、ctivities.生理學(xué)簡介生理學(xué)簡介介紹介紹生理學(xué)是研究生物體功能的科學(xué)。它研究生物體如何進(jìn)行各種活動(dòng)，如何飲食，如何運(yùn)動(dòng)，如何適應(yīng)不斷改變的環(huán)境，如何繁殖后代。這門學(xué)科包羅萬象，涵蓋了生物體整個(gè)生命過程。生理學(xué)成功地解釋了生物體如何進(jìn)行日?；顒?dòng)，基于的觀點(diǎn)是生物體好比是結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜而靈巧的機(jī)器，其操作受物理和化學(xué)規(guī)律控制。盡管從生物學(xué)整個(gè)范疇看，生物體某些活動(dòng)過程是相似的——如基因編碼的復(fù)制——但許多過程還是某些生物體群組特有的。鑒于

13、此有必要將這門學(xué)科分成不同部分研究，如細(xì)菌生理學(xué)、植物生理學(xué)和動(dòng)物生理學(xué)。要研究一種動(dòng)物如何活動(dòng)，首先需要了解它的構(gòu)成。要充分了解一個(gè)生物體的生理學(xué)活動(dòng)就必須掌握全面的解剖學(xué)知識(shí)。一個(gè)生物體的各部分起著什么作用可通過實(shí)驗(yàn)觀察得知。盡管我們對(duì)志愿者進(jìn)行了許多重要的生理調(diào)查，但是實(shí)驗(yàn)條件需要精確控制，所以我們當(dāng)前大多生理知識(shí)還是源于對(duì)其它動(dòng)物如青蛙，兔子，貓和狗等的研究。當(dāng)我們明確大多數(shù)動(dòng)物物種的特定生理過程存在共同之處時(shí)，相同的生理原理適

14、用于人類也是合理的。通過這種方法，我們獲得了大量的知識(shí)，從而讓我們對(duì)人類生理學(xué)有了更深入的了解，為我們有效治療許多疾病提供了一個(gè)堅(jiān)實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)。機(jī)體的基本組成物質(zhì)是細(xì)胞，細(xì)胞結(jié)合在一起形成組織。組織的基本類型有上皮組織，結(jié)締組織，神經(jīng)組織和肌組織，每類組織都有各自的特征。許多結(jié)締組織中細(xì)胞量相對(duì)較少，但是有大量的細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)。相比而言，光滑的肌組織由大量密密麻麻的肌細(xì)胞通過特定的細(xì)胞連接組成。各種器官如腦，心臟，肺，小腸和肝等由不同種類的組織

15、聚集而成。這些器官是不同生理系統(tǒng)的組成部分。心臟和血管組成心血管系統(tǒng)；肺，器官，支氣管，胸壁和膈肌組成呼吸系統(tǒng)；骨骼和骨骼肌組成骨骼肌系統(tǒng)；大腦，脊髓，自主神經(jīng)和神經(jīng)中樞以及周圍軀體神經(jīng)組成神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)等等。細(xì)胞在形體和功能上差異很大，但是thetissuesiscarriedtothelungsbythebloodinthepulmonaryarterywhereitisexcretedintheexpiredair.Thebasicqu

16、estionstobeansweredincludethefollowing:HowistheairmovedinoutofthelungsHowisthevolumeofairbreathedadjustedtomeettherequirementsofthebodyWhatlimitstherateofoxygenuptakeinthelungsThedigestivesystemThenutrientsneededbythebod

17、yarederivedfromthediet.Foodistakeninbythemouthbrokendownintoitscomponentpartsbyenzymesinthegastrointestinaltract.Thedigestiveproductsarethenabsbedintothebloodacrossthewalloftheintestinepasstotheliverviatheptalvein.Theliv

18、ermakesnutrientsavailabletothetissuesbothftheirgrowthrepairftheproductionofenergy.Inthecaseofthedigestivesystemkeyphysiologicalquestionsare:HowisfoodingestedHowisitbrokendowndigestedHowaretheindividualnutrientsabsbedHowi

19、sthefoodmovedthroughthegutHowaretheindigestibleremainseliminatedfromthebodyThekidneysurinarytractThechieffunctionofthekidneysistocontrolthecompositionoftheextracellularfluid.Inthecourseofthisprocesstheyalsoeliminatenonvo

20、latilewasteproductsfromtheblood.Toperfmthesefunctionsthekidneysproduceurineofvariablecompositionwhichistemparilystedinthebladderbefevoiding.Thekeyphysiologicalquestionsinthiscaseare:howdothekidneysregulatethecompositiono

21、fthebloodHowdotheyeliminatetoxicwasteHowdotheyrespondtostressessuchasdehydrationWhatmechanismsallowthestageeliminationoftheurineThereproductivesystemReproductionisoneofthefundamentalacteristicsoflivingganisms.Thegonadspr

22、oducespecializedsexcellsknownasgametes.Attheceofsexualreproductionisthecreationfusionofthemalefemalegametesthespermova(eggs)withtheresultthatthegeicacteristicsoftwoseparateindividualsaremixedtoproduceoffspringthatdifferg

23、eicallyfromtheirparents.ThemusculoskeletalsystemThisconsistsofthebonesoftheskeletonskeletalmusclesjointstheirassociatedtissues.Itsprimaryfunctionistoprovideameansofmovementwhichisrequiredflocomotionfthemaintenanceofpostu

24、refbreathing.Italsoprovidesphysicalsupptftheinternalgans.Herethemechanismofmusclecontractionisacentralissue.Theendocrinenervoussystems.TheendocrinenervoussystemsTheactivitiesofthedifferentgansystemsneedtobecodinatedregul

25、atedsothattheyacttogethertomeettheneedsofthebody.Twocodinatingsystemshaveevolved:thenervoussystemtheendocrine機(jī)體進(jìn)行各項(xiàng)活動(dòng)所需的能量最終來源于呼吸。這一過程包括食物（主要是糖類和脂肪）的氧化，釋放它們所含的能量。這一過程中，氧氣來自于肺中的空氣，經(jīng)由血液到達(dá)全身各組織。組織呼吸活動(dòng)中釋放的二氧化碳由肺動(dòng)脈中的血液運(yùn)送至肺，然后

26、呼氣排出體外。需回答的基本問題如下：空氣是如何進(jìn)出肺的？呼吸的空氣量如何適應(yīng)機(jī)體所需？限制肺吸收氧氣頻率的因素是什么？消化系統(tǒng)消化系統(tǒng)機(jī)體所需營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)來源于飲食。食物經(jīng)口腔進(jìn)入體內(nèi)，在胃腸道內(nèi)經(jīng)酶將其分解成小分子物質(zhì)。這些消化物通過腸壁吸收入血液，通過門靜脈進(jìn)入肝臟。經(jīng)肝臟作用后，這些營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)能夠滿足組織生長修復(fù)及能量需求。在消化系統(tǒng)部分，重要的生理學(xué)問題是：食物是如何消化的？食物如何被個(gè)體分解消化？個(gè)體營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)如何吸收？食物如何在腸內(nèi)

27、轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)的？未消化的殘留如何從體內(nèi)排出？泌尿系統(tǒng)泌尿系統(tǒng)腎臟主要功能是控制細(xì)胞外液體的形成。在這一過程中，腎臟也會(huì)把不可揮發(fā)的廢物排出去。為行使這一功能，在排出之前，腎臟產(chǎn)生含有各種成分的尿液并將其暫時(shí)儲(chǔ)存在膀胱中。這一部分主要的生理學(xué)問題是：腎臟如何調(diào)節(jié)血液中的成分？如何排出有毒廢物？如何應(yīng)對(duì)像脫水這樣的應(yīng)激反應(yīng)？以及尿液可以存儲(chǔ)和排出體外的機(jī)制是什么？生殖系統(tǒng)生殖系統(tǒng)生殖是活生物體的一個(gè)基本特征。生殖腺產(chǎn)生專門的性細(xì)胞，被稱為配子。性生