[雙語翻譯]停車場外文翻譯--美國雜亂無序停車場的環(huán)境和經(jīng)濟成本（英文）

1、Land Use Policy 27 (2010) 255–261Contents lists available at ScienceDirectLand Use Policyjournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/landusepolThe environmental and economic costs of sprawling parking lots in the United St

2、atesAmélie Y. Davis a,c, Bryan C. Pijanowski a,?, Kimberly Robinson a, Bernard Engel ba Human-Environment Modeling and Analysis Laboratory, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafay

3、ette, IN 47906, United Statesb Center for Advanced Geographic Information Systems, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, United Statesc Furman University, Cen

4、ter for Sustainability, 3300 Poinsett Highway, Greenville, SC 29613, United Statesa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received 6 November 2008Received in revised form 27 February 2009Accepted 2 March 2009Keywords:Parkin

5、gAutomobileParking lotsParking spacesEnvironmental impactsEconomic costsImpervious surfaceRunoffHeat islandsa b s t r a c tUrban sprawl is considered by most environmental scientists and urban planners to be a serious en

6、viron-mental problem. However, public perception about parking availability often forces planning offices torecommend parking lot sizes that exceed daily demands. The recent trend of increasing the size of stores,churche

7、s and even schools comes with increasing the size of parking lots that service these buildings.The objective of this paper is to analyze space allocation of parking lots in a typical midwestern countyand to estimate the

8、supply of parking spaces to potential demand. We also estimate the loss of ecosystemservices represented by the area of parking lots in this county. We found that parking lots cover 5.65 km2(1 397 acres) of Tippecanoe Co

9、unty, Indiana which implies that 0.44% of the county area is devoted toparking lots. Our results show that there are approximately 2.2 parking spaces per registered vehicle, thatparking lots make up more than 6.57% of th

10、e total urban footprint in this county, that the area of park-ing lots exceeded the area of parks in the city limits by a factor of three and that parking lot runoff andpollutants are significant compared to runoff and p

11、ollutants from these areas prior to their conversion toparking lots. As other authors have done before us we lament the poor use of land in urban regions of theUnited States, and encourage planners to think creatively ab

12、out the use of land for parking.© 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.IntroductionAmerica’s love affair with the automobile is well known (Alvord,2000). However, little is reported on the amount of space devotedt

13、o parking our vehicles as we shop, work, worship, or attendschool. Paved parking surfaces, also known as parking lots, are aninsidious partner of increased urbanization particularly in regionsexperiencing rapid developme

14、nt. The national estimate of urbancoverage is between 2% and 5%, and it is increasing rapidly (Jinand Zhang, 2002; Imhoff et al., 2000). Frequently cited culpritsof urban sprawl have been residential development and shop

15、pingmalls (Squires, 2002), but the proportion of the urban landscapededicated solely to parking lots has not been systematically docu-mented.Parking lots are considered unattractive and hostile (Gibbons,1999); they can i

16、ncrease congestion and lower land values(Wilson, 1995), undermine walkability, are generally oversup-plied (Mukhija and Shoup, 2006) and are a subtle subsidy to theautomotive industry. Indeed we spend an inordinate amoun

17、t of? Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 765 496 2215 fax: +1 765 496 2422.E-mail address: bpijanow@purdue.edu (B.C. Pijanowski).money and land to park our cars (Manville and Shoup, 2005)at the expense of the environment, an

18、d the expansion of publictransportation.Several decision making factors contribute toward large park-ing lots. First, most businesses when applying for a building permitdetermine the number of spaces they will need for t

19、he day of peakdemand such as the day after thanksgiving for shops, day of Christ-mas service for some churches, school events where all parentsand teachers need to be present, etc. (Shoup, 2005). Thus parkinglot size can

20、 be considered excessive since it remains mostly emptyfor the remainder of the year. This is especially true in open envi-ronments like the suburbs, and it further exacerbates inefficientand unpractical public transporta

21、tion. On the other hand, findinga parking space in large cities can be difficult or costly, but onemay ask whether a commodity with such negative and wide reach-ing environmental effects should not carry its associated c

22、ost andbe strictly regulated? A second factor contributing to large park-ing lots is brought on by urban planners who generally believe thatparking is a problem only when there is a shortage of it (Shoup,2005), and there

23、fore tend to overestimate the amount of neces-sary parking in an effort to avoid such shortages. Shoup (2005)states that, “because planners and politicians want to avoid crit-icism for allowing development that later cre

24、ates parking spillover,0264-8377/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.03.002A.Y. Davis et al. / Land Use Policy 27 (2010) 255–261 257Fig. 1. Close up of orthoph

25、oto from Tippecanoe County, Indiana, detailing the digitizing of parking lots and areas which were not digitized in this study.ing age, and the number of households. We also obtained from theBureau of Motor Vehicles, the

26、 number of registered passenger vehi-cles in Tippecanoe County. We used these statistics to generate thefollowing supply/demand metrics: the number of parking spacesin the county per person of driving age, per household

27、and per reg-istered vehicle. In addition, we tabulated the total area of parksto compare the amount of area devoted to parking compared tonatural areas set aside as parks, both county wide and solely con-tained within ci

28、ty limits of Lafayette and West Lafayette. It shouldbe noted that Tippecanoe County is home to Purdue University andits, approximately 40,000 students which are not included in thecensus, but six of the eight multilevel

29、parking garages which werenot counted in the parking lot footprints (except for the top floor,which were counted) are on the Purdue University campus.We translated the total area of parking lots into two differentperspec