2018年農(nóng)民工外文翻譯—移民工人及其職業(yè)健康安全（全文翻譯）

1、<p>　　字?jǐn)?shù)：英文5241單詞，30151字符；中文9214漢字</p><p>　　出處：Moyce S C, Schenker M. Migrant workers and their occupational health and safety[J].Annual review of public health,2018,39:351-365.</p><p><

2、b>　　外文文獻(xiàn)　</b></p><p>　　Migrant Workers and Their Occupational Health and Safety</p><p>　　Abstract In 2015, approximately 244 million people were transnational migrants, approximately h

3、alf of whom were workers, often engaged in jobs that are hazardous to their health. They work for less pay, for longer hours, and in worse conditions than do nonmigrants and are often subject to human rights violations,

4、abuse, human trafficking, and violence. Worldwide, immigrant workers have higher rates of adverse occupational exposures and working conditions, which lead to poor health outcomes, wor</p><p>　　Keywords: glo

5、bal migration, occupational health, health disparities, immigrant labor</p><p>　　INTRODUCTION</p><p>　　In 2015, 244 million people were living outside their country of origin, comprising 3.3% of

6、 the world’s population, according to the United Nations. The International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates that approximately half of these are immigrant workers, those who leave their countries of origin in search o

7、f occupational opportunities in another, often more developed, country. These individuals represent nearly 4% of the total global population aged 15 years and over. However, if one also inc</p><p>　　GLOBAL M

8、IGRATION AT A GLANCE</p><p>　　Nearly half of all transnational migrants work in either North America or in Northern, Southern, or Western Europe. About 40% of global migration is between countries in the Sou

9、thern Hemisphere. The Arab states are host to the highest proportion of immigrant workers, and 35.6% of the workforce in the Arab states are migrant workers. The foreign-born population in some Arab states is more than 8

10、0% and comprises almost all the working population. Workers migrating internationally come from Asia (4</p><p>　　The majority (71.1%) of migrant workers worldwide are engaged in the service industry, includi

11、ng domestic work, food services, and administrative or professional work. Other occupational sectors include industry (manufacturing and construction) and agricultural work. The ILO estimates that women make up 44.3% of

12、all migrant workers. Women are six times more likely than men to be engaged in domestic work abroad.</p><p>　　OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH RISKS FOR IMMIGRANT WORKERS</p><p>　　Migrant workers are recogni

13、zed to be among the most vulnerable members of society. They are often engaged in what are known as 3-D jobs—dirty, dangerous, and demanding (sometimes degrading or demeaning)—and these workers are often hidden from or i

14、nvisible to the public eye and from public policy. They work for less pay, for longer hours, and in worse conditions than do nonmigrants and are often subject to human rights violations, abuse, human trafficking, and vio

15、lence. Most importantly, these pr</p><p>　　Worldwide, immigrant workers have higher rates of negative occupational exposures, leading to poor health outcomes, workplace injuries, and occupational fatalities.

16、 Globally, in 2014, the ILO estimated that there were 2.3 million occupational fatalities from a variety of different sources. The higher rates of occupational fatalities among immigrant workers may be attributed to a va

17、riety of factors, including inherent risks in the jobs themselves and the lack of training and protection for immigr</p><p>　　Using the European Working Conditions Survey, an analysis of nearly 30,000 worker

18、s in 31 European countries reveals higher rates of negative occupational exposures among migrants when compared with native workers. Migrant workers were more likely than native workers to be exposed to high temperatures

19、, loud noises, strong vibrations, and fast work speeds and to stand for long periods of time. These individuals often worked without contracts and had unfavorable work schedules. The industries most </p><p>

20、　　Migrant workers are less likely to have a permanent job contract than are native-born workers, and studies have shown greater reporting of poorer health to be associated with the lack of a permanent job contract.</p

21、><p>　　Environmental Exposures</p><p>　　Many of the health risks for immigrant workers are due to environmental hazards inherent in the occupational setting. Migrant workers tend to be employed in

22、jobs that carry increased exposure to environmental toxins, including extreme temperatures, pesticides, and chemicals.</p><p>　　Temperature. Immigrant workers employed in natural resources, construction, and

23、 maintenance often work outside and are subject to extreme weather exposure, which can increase their risk of lightning strikes, sun exposure, heat-related illness and death, snake bites, and tick-borne diseases. In the

24、fishing industry in Alaska, an estimated three-quarters of the workforce is made up of immigrants. These workers experience high rates of injury related to cold temperatures and frequent contact with i</p><p&g

25、t;　　Pesticides. Among the 2 million agricultural workers in the United States, an estimated 10,000– 20,000 pesticide injuries are medically treated each year. The US agricultural workforce is overwhelmingly immigrant. Ap

26、proximately 65% of US farmworkers are Latino, and that number increases to 90% in California, the substantial majority of whom are immigrants. In a sample of 284 farmworkers in North Carolina, Arcury and colleagues found

27、 detectable levels of pesticides in urine in as many as 97.4% of</p><p>　　Chemicals. Exposure to dangerous chemicals is common in many of the industries in which immigrants work. For example, workers employe

28、d as housekeepers in residences or in hotels are exposed to chemicals in cleaning agents that can lead to dermatitis, respiratory diseases, and cancer. Hotel cleaners regularly work with hazardous chemicals containing am

29、monia and other irritating solvents. Immigrants who work in nail salons are exposed to formaldehyde, toluene, and dibutyl phthalate. Chemicals used</p><p>　　Working Conditions</p><p>　　Occupatio

30、nal sectors that employ immigrant workers tend to include work that is physically demanding. These demands increase the risk of injuries and fatalities because working conditions may be unsafe or unregulated. In addition

31、, the precarious position of immigrants prevents them from making changes to their working conditions when an unsafe or hazardous condition is identified.</p><p>　　Physical hazards. According to the Canadian

32、 Center for Occupational Safety and Health, a hotel housekeeper changes body position every three seconds while cleaning a guest room. Hotel housekeeping results in the potential for muscle strain related to body positio

33、n, repetitive motion, fast-paced work, and heavy lifting of cleaning equipment, such as industrial-strength vacuum cleaners. Hotel cleaners report injuries from lifting heavy beds or from exposure to bodily secretions or

34、 needles when cle</p><p>　　Workplace demands. Immigrants are often employed in precarious or insecure jobs, meaning there is no employment contract. This lack of a guaranteed paycheck and the risk of losing

35、the job create uncertainty for the worker and results in the worker often accepting the dangers or risks of the job without complaint for fear of losing employment. Workers may experience high levels of stress related to

36、 a fast-paced work environment. For example, immigrant workers in poultry report that their supervis</p><p>　　Lack of safety standards. Regulations to protect workers exist in many of the industries that emp

37、loy immigrants. However, these safety standards are not always followed. For example, immigrant workers on some poultry farms report that personal protective equipment (PPE) is often supplied by employers, but it may be

38、up to the worker to purchase the equipment. In addition, workers themselves do not always follow safety rules, electing not to wear PPE due to poor fit or the belief that the equipmen</p><p>　　Workplace abus

39、e. Abuses in the workplace take multiple forms, from outright physical abuse or harassment to what has been termed benign neglect when managers fail to implement or enforce safety measures. The actual or perceived lack o

40、f legal protection for immigrant workers often results in their exposure to abuse in the workplace. In interviews with Mexican and Indian immigrants to Canada, workers often reported that they worked with aggressive, abu

41、sive bosses. The threat of physical violence a</p><p>　　Abuses suffered in the work environment lead to negative mental health outcomes. Female immigrant workers report mood instability and depression relate

42、d to work conditions, including exploitation and low levels of control combined with stressors at home related to gendered responsibilities and unequal division of home labor. In an analysis of a subset of 1,397 Filipino

43、 immigrant workers who participated in the Filipino American Community Epidemiology Study, Tsai and colleagues found a statistica</p><p>　　Trafficking and forced labor. Increasing globalization has led to a

44、dramatic increase in international human trafficking or forced labor; the United States is one of the primary destinations for trafficked persons. Estimates of the number of persons trafficked vary widely from 2.5 millio

45、n to 27 million, and the majority are women and girls; however, human trafficking of men also exists in selected industries (e.g., fishing, mining) around the world. Traffickers often confiscate legal documents, </p&g

46、t;<p>　　ANALYSIS OF RISK FACTORS</p><p>　　Negative health outcomes disproportionately affect immigrant workers across the globe, and there are multiple reasons why immigrant workers carry this increas

47、ed risk when compared with nativeborn workers. Overall, immigrant workers are concentrated in industries that expose them to dangerous conditions and increase their risk of occupational injury and fatality. In addition,

48、the precarious nature of the jobs makes them susceptible to risk taking and safety violations. Precarious employment is as</p><p>　　Language and Cultural Barriers</p><p>　　Immigrants who do not

49、speak the host country’s dominant language are at particular risk for occupational injury, although research on this association has been mixed. Without language skills, immigrants are relegated to more dangerous jobs. I

50、n addition, workers with lower education levels and limited language skills tend to incur more occupational injuries than do those with higher education. Although safety trainings are essential to protect worker health,

51、they may not be offered in workers’ na</p><p>　　Access to Health Care</p><p>　　Immigrant workers often lack access to health care owing to their precarious employment, poverty, lack of documenta

52、tion, or limited knowledge of the health insurance system. Insurance coverage for medical expenses is one of the most significant barriers to accessing health care. Another barrier is difficulty getting to clinics or med

53、ical providers, as workers may live in isolated, rural areas and lack reliable or safe transportation to medical appointments. Long working hours, including nights a</p><p>　　Female Gender</p><p&g

54、t;　　Females migrating abroad for work may face higher health risks than their male counterparts do, and differences in mental health outcomes, cancer rates, occupational injury, and reproductive health are documented in

55、the literature. Among farmworkers, for example, women make up 43% of the workforce in developing countries and 20% in developed countries, and women have higher rates of esophageal and stomach cancer than men do, potenti

56、ally related to pesticide exposure. In a study of workers in the</p><p>　　Women who migrate may be at a double disadvantage of discrimination in the workforce because they not only have to navigate their rol

57、es as immigrants but also are subject to gender inequality. These workers earn less than do immigrant men and native-born women. Females may migrate as partners, following the work of their spouse and then finding employ

58、ment of their own. This relationship creates an economic dependence on their spouse, and women may suffer intimate partner violence as a result. Ad</p><p>　　Documentation Status</p><p>　　Workers

59、 who lack legal authorization to work are arguably most susceptible to negative health outcomes. In a survey of more than 4,000 workers in low-wage jobs in Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York, researchers found that undoc

60、umented workers were more than two times as likely to experience wage violations compared with documented workers. Undocumented workers were less likely to make formal complaints to their employers about workplace safety

61、 violations because of fears about losing their jobs.</p><p>　　The current visa structure in the United States results in systematic vulnerabilities for immigrant workers. Workers in the United States under

62、H-2 visas enjoy certain occupational protections, including guaranteed pay, workers’ compensation, and the legal right to reside in the United States while employed. However, these arrangements may increase their vulnera

63、bility if employment conditions are not satisfactory or are dangerous. A worker with an H-2 visa is required to complete his/her work fo</p><p>　　Immigrants working legally in Canada are under similar limita

64、tions in control, particularly if they are sponsored by a family member. Under that system, immigrants to Canada have the option to sponsor a family member who wishes to immigrate. However, this relationship puts the wor

65、ker in a vulnerable position, tied to the sponsoring family member for financial support. To repay these debts, workers will often remain in dangerous occupations with high injury risk. Similar visa restrictions exist f&

66、lt;/p><p>　　Political Climate</p><p>　　Immigrants are always subject to the political climate of the receiving country, which creates uncertainty and irregularity in the treatment of workers. When

67、the receiving country adopts a position of xenophobia, immigrant workers’ rights are in jeopardy, and their health suffers. A study of immigrant workers in Michigan found worse self-reported health outcomes and higher le

68、vels of stress after a raid by immigration officials. Increased border patrol activity may also negatively influence worke</p><p>　　The geopolitical context of the host country creates barriers to the testin

69、g and treatment of sexually transmitted infections and HIV across the globe. Laws and policies have historically limited migration of HIV-positive individuals into various countries, not for purposes of health promotion

70、but to prevent the spread of the virus. Inadvertently, perhaps, these policies often lead to discrimination and exclusion. In an analysis of HIV-related migration restrictions of 193 World Health Organizat</p><

71、;p>　　RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE OCCUPATIONAL RISKS FOR IMMIGRANTS</p><p>　　Although immigrant workers are at an increased risk for occupational illnesses and injuries, recent innovations have begun to mit

72、igate some of these risks and reduce the disparities between immigrant and native-born workers. Examples from around the world are used to demonstrate approaches to improving worker health.</p><p>　　Improved

73、 Safety Trainings</p><p>　　Despite the increased risks of occupational injury and fatality among immigrant workers, attention to policies and unique partnerships may improve these conditions and the health o

74、f workers. Improvement in health and safety trainings is an important first step. Owing to language barriers, variations in literacy levels, and unequal access to formal education, presenting safety information in Englis

75、h or through the use of flyers or worksheets is not adequate in multicultural work settings. Safety </p><p>　　Work-based trainings are only one way to improve the health and safety of workers. Trainings and

76、public health messaging can be expanded beyond the workplace and into the social media arena or through partnerships with local community centers. The National Institutes for Occupational Safety and Health created a uniq

77、ue partnership with the Mexican government to improve health and safety trainings for Mexican-origin immigrant workers. Using the 50 consulates across the United States, the agency is</p><p>　　The US Departm

78、ent of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health branch recently implemented its Site-Specific Targeting program to target occupations with high injury rates. This program includes a letter to identified agencies to warn ab

79、out the high injury rates and inspections for compliance with workplace safety and health regulations. Although the results of these interventions are mixed, similar approaches using risk-based audits to target resources

80、 toward potential occupational safety risks sh</p><p>　　Policy Changes</p><p>　　The ILO has taken the lead in protecting immigrant worker health, and its mission of social justice focuses on cre

81、ating fair labor practices in host countries to promote worker protection. The ILO calls for policies that recognize the contributions that migrant laborers make to host countries and policies that promote “decent work o

82、pportunities” and social protections. Migrant workers contribute to the economies of both their country of origin and the host country by accepting and shouldering gr</p><p>　　One method to promote fair labo

83、r practices is the Migrant Welfare Fund, operated by the government of the country of origin. A well-developed example of the migrant welfare fund is the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration, operated by a special gov

84、ernment agency in the Department of Labor and Employment in the Philippines. Through modest membership fees paid by the migrant or the recruiting agency, the fund protects the rights of workers emigrating from the Philip

85、pines by providing predepartu</p><p>　　Expanding the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to improve worker rights is another method used around the world with success. For example, in the Pearl Rive

86、r Delta of China, NGOs offer regular trainings to migrant workers regarding legal status, capacity building, and financial resources.</p><p>　　Fair Recruitment Policies</p><p>　　The vulnerabilit

87、y of international migrants begins in the country of origin with predatory recruitment practices. Workers traveling to a foreign country are often required to pay high recruitment fees to the agency or person assisting t

88、hem in migration. It can be difficult for the migrant to determine whether the recruiting agency is a legitimate organization or one that preys on the vulnerability of the migrant. When recruiting fees are exorbitant, th

89、e debt of the worker puts him/her at risk fo</p><p>　　Recognizing the boost to their economy from remittances sent by emigrants, the government of Bangladesh created official offices to monitor the recruitme

90、nt of its citizens. The Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training issues licenses to recruiting agencies and provides immigration clearance after reviewing employment contracts. In Latin America, citizens from select co

91、untries can take advantage of visa-free employment in a participating country under the Free Movement and Residence Agreement. </p><p>　　Finally, social media and investigative reporting can play a role in c

92、alling attention to some of the cases of abusive immigrant working conditions and, ultimately, to improvement in workplace conditions. Such was the case with the investigation of nail salon workers in New York and with s

93、ome of the conditions of female domestic workers in the United Arab Emirates. The bad publicity as well as consumer action in these situations have led authorities to make much-needed improvements.</p><p>　　

94、CONCLUSION</p><p>　　Protection of workers’ health is the responsibility of the global community as well as of local governments and businesses. Federal governments can and should implement and enforce safety

95、 and health policies for all workers regardless of immigration status and can offer immigration reform to reduce the fears of deportation related to personal injury or to reporting health and safety violations. Businesse

96、s can ensure that they work with authorized recruitment agencies, which provide legal protect</p><p>　　Global migration benefits the countries of origin and the host countries, businesses that employ migrant

97、s, and the migrants and their families. Despite the social and economic advantages of migration, immigrant workers are at risk for multiple health disparities related to their occupation, their legal status, immigration