金融學(xué)專業(yè)外文翻譯---低碳金融在東亞地區(qū)的發(fā)展

1、<p>　　本科畢業(yè)論文外文原文</p><p>　　外文題目： Carbon Finance for Low-Carbon Community Development in East Asia </p><p>　　出 處： Institute for Global Environment

2、al Strategies(IGES) </p><p>　　作 者： Hidenori Nakamura, Policy Researcher, Policy and Governance Team </p>

3、<p><b>　　原 文：</b></p><p>　　Low-carbon development is required in East Asia to achieve development constrained by energy availability and to mitigate anticipated climate change. Incorporati

4、ng climate change mitigation into community development efforts is important to help put countries on a low-carbon developmental pathway. However, this is not easy to achieve, and one of the major obstacles is finance. I

5、n many developing countries, local funding sources are scarce. To address this obstacle, this study explores the potent</p><p>　　This study tries to address several questions. What is the state of carbon fin

6、ance for low-carbon community development projects in East Asian developing countries where the projects have developmental benefits to the community as well as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction effects? Are there

7、 any low-carbon community development projects that are financed by either not-for-profit finance (i.e., loans which do not seek financial returns), or contributions by non-profit organisations (NPOs) a</p><p&

8、gt;　　This report examines the above questions and discusses implications for local actors, in particular local governments, who are promoting low-carbon development in the areas of energy, waste and transport, and develo

9、ps policy suggestions for national and international public institutions to support such local actors in selected East Asian developing countries, i.e. the Philippines, Indonesia and China. To answer these questions, thr

10、ee country case studies were conducted, including nation-wide pre</p><p>　　This study found that there were increasing numbers of development oriented clean development mechanism (CDM) projects in the three

11、countries. Also, there are a few climate change mitigation projects for carbon offsetting in Indonesia, some low-carbon community development projects without carbon credits funded by contributions and donations in the P

12、hilippines and Indonesia, and no such projects funded by not-for-profit finance.</p><p>　　The study also suggests several barriers to the utilisation of international carbon finance, in particular for carbon

13、 finance, especially unfavourable conditions for investors such as high transaction costs and limited knowledge and experiences of local actors. This study also examines the roles played by local governments, including a

14、s project proponents and facilitators, as well as the means that local governments use to facilitate projects, such as support for project proponents, enhancing co</p><p>　　Based on the findings and analyses

15、 of the country studies, this study suggests several ways for stakeholders to further promote carbon finance for low-carbon community development projects in East Asian developing countries.</p><p>　　For pro

16、ject developers interested in development, including either local governments or private companies, it is desirable to refocus existing development programmes to incorporate additional GHG emissions reduction effects in

17、order to utilise carbon finance, and to select technologies that utilise locally available technology to avoid higher costs that discourage investors, if international technology transfer hinders project formulation. Pro

18、ject developers should also make more efforts to outr</p><p>　　Local governments should select, revise and implement appropriate developmental programmes that have GHG emissions reduction effects, utilising

19、carbon finance schemes. Local governments are also encouraged to develop and extend the programmatic approach which aggregates many small-scale projects in a certain geographical area so that low-carbon projects can cont

20、ribute to existing developmental programmes as well as generate revenues from carbon credit production and sales. National governments c</p><p>　　National governments and international organisations could su

21、pport development of low-carbon community development projects by establishing a fund that operates a</p><p>　　competitive grant programme, whose grants can be used for underlying finance to projects that sh

22、ow high prospects in terms of contribution to community developmental benefits, and by assisting in knowledge dissemination and capacity development activities for the staff lf local governments and financial institution

23、s.</p><p>　　For China, the only low carbon development projects found by the study were CDM projects with carbon credits. No voluntary carbon offsetting projects were found in the areas of energy efficiency,

24、 renewable energy, and waste and wastewater management. Also, the study did not find any low-carbon development projects funded through not-for-profit or non-profit private finance, though it is possible that some low-ca

25、rbon development projects funded by non-profit private finance may be funded by inter</p><p>　　The number of CDM projects that were approved by the Chinese DNA has increased drastically. After the very first

26、 CDM project was approved on 10 January 2006, 255 projects were approved by the end of year 2006. In 2007, 773 projects were approved and 570 projects had been approved by 3 November 2008. The total number of CDM project

27、s approved is 1,598 as of 3 November 2008. Around half of the projects approved are hydropower projects. Wind power, waste heat / gas utilisation, methane recovery, ene</p><p>　　The number of development-ori

28、ented GHG mitigation projects that produce voluntary carbon credits is still limited in China. This study could find such projects only for reforestation prepared by the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA

29、)。</p><p>　　Regarding the low-carbon community development projects that do not produce carbon credits, opportunities in China for not-for-profit or non-profit private finance were also found to be limited.

30、Low-carbon community development projects in the sectors of renewable energy, waste and wastewater management and transport are funded by either national / local governments or international organisations.</p><

31、;p>　　Although all projects have risks associated with expected benefits, CDM projects are seen to have higher risks than many other business projects, including uncertainties and costs specific to CDM projects. The ri

32、sks associated with CDM projects in general are explained first, and those specific to China are described later.</p><p>　　The first one is registration risk. The project proponent must go through three leve

33、ls of domestic approval processes, including the city, provincial and national levels. For the international application, the proponent needs to find buyers of carbon credit, pass the designated operational entities (DOE

34、) validation, and clear the registration assessment by the CDM Executive Board (EB). This registration process normally takes more than one year and there is also a risk of failure of registration</p><p>　　T

35、he second risk is the prepayment of transaction costs, which include PDD preparation costs, negotiation costs, DOE validation costs, registration costs, monitoring costs, verification costs, consultant fee, and the charg

36、e by the DNA. In addition, the unit transaction cost is larger for smaller projects. </p><p>　　The third risk is associated with the gap between the estimated and actual amount of credits issued. This could

37、happen for example in the case of methane recovery projects at landfill sites.</p><p>　　Another problem specific to China is that there is a discrepancy between the CDM-EB rule of additionality and the relat

38、ed domestic regulations. The Chinese government requires that each CDM project should have a higher IRR than the benchmark for each industry, yet the CDM-EB considers that such a high IRR indicates no additionality. Ther

39、efore, Chinese project proponents need to modify the feasibility study to meet the CDM-EB requirement after they obtain domestic approval.</p><p>　　In addition, China has a regulation that limits eligibility

40、 to be a CDM project proponent to private companies and excludes local governments. This hinders some CDM projects where it is more appropriate to have a governmental organization as coordinator, for example in the case

41、of biogas micro digester distribution projects for farmers in Chongqing.</p><p>　　In China, local governments actively play various facilitating roles, but they do not develop and implement projects directly

42、 due to CDM regulations.</p><p>　　The above discussion illustrates the existence of several types of barriers to the utilisation of carbon finance, in particular CDM, to fund low-carbon community development

43、, as was initially expected.</p><p>　　The first category is unfavourable conditions for investors, which make it difficult to secure the underlying finance. New technology used in low-carbon development is s

44、een by investors as risky and makes them reluctant to finance projects as observed in the Philippines and Indonesia. Low profitability associated with high transaction costs and small size of projects, or the low amounts

45、 of the carbon credits, also reduces the attractiveness for the investors. High transaction costs were concrete</p><p>　　In addition to these unfavourable conditions, local government officials and the staff

46、 of local financial institutions often have limited or no knowledge and experience regarding carbon finance. This has also made project development and finance difficult in the Philippines, Indonesia, and even China, whi

47、ch is the second largest host country of CDM projects in terms of registered projects. Moreover, the concepts of carbon credit or even climate change mitigation in general, are still difficult f</p><p>　　Tho

48、ugh these barriers are not necessarily characteristic for all low-carbon community development projects, the lower profitability of development-oriented projects and the novelty of carbon credits are important obstacles

49、to consider when developing possible promotion measures.</p><p>　　Roles of local governments：In China, local governments actively play various facilitating roles, but they do not develop and implement projec

50、ts directly due to CDM regulations.</p><p>　　For CDM projects, local governments in China have played the role of facilitator, recognizing the benefits of local development through CDM projects. Local govern

51、ments sometimes provide necessary land and electricity with favourable conditions to CMD projects. </p><p>　　Ways to promote carbon finance for low-carbon community development：Although CDM is a carbon finan

52、ce mechanism which is relatively widely used in the Philippines, Indonesia and China compared to the other financial mechanisms, there is still considerable scope to expand its use further. In order to do this, unfavoura

53、ble conditions for investors and CDM specific issues should be addressed.</p><p>　　Enhancing the roles of local governments：Several local governments have played effective facilitation roles to support proje

54、ct proponents as well as promote communication among stakeholders. They have also provided land and electricity, developed necessary local institutions, and provided benefits and subsidies.</p><p>　　These lo

55、cal governments’ experiences can be shared with other local governments, both domestically and sometimes internationally, that are interested in low-carbon development using new environmental financial mechanisms. </p

56、><p>　　In addition to the demonstrated cases, local governments could promote two-step loans to finance low-carbon community development projects by effectively coordinating with national governments and intern

57、ational / local financial institutions.</p><p>　　A key point is that local governments can use carbon financing to revitalize stalled developmental projects, if these projects also have GHG emissions mitigat

58、ion effects, since additionality could be demonstrated.</p><p>　　Further development of not-for-profit / non-profit private finance：The barriers to not-for-profit private finance for low-carbon development p

59、rojects could be overcome if the revenues could be increased or costs could be reduced. The social business model, which creates social value while paying back the original investment but does not deliver profits or divi

60、dends to investors, such as the microcredit business in Bangladesh by Grameen or IT-based educational and medical services in Bangladesh b</p><p>　　There are several trials of microcredit for renewable energ

61、y in India and China and these cases might demonstrate potential ways to overcome these barriers. They include solar photovoltaic power generation financed by microcredit, solar photovoltaic power generation operated and

62、 maintained through a fee-for-service mechanism similar to ESCO, solar heating funded through two-step loans , and solar rechargeable lanterns paid by beneficiaries, all in India. Other cases include a solar photovoltai

63、c</p><p>　　Conclusion：This study found that there are at least dozens of CDM projects that are oriented towards local community development in each case study country -- the Philippines, Indonesia and China

64、-- and there are a few development-oriented mitigation projects that are producing voluntary carbon credits in Indonesia in the areas of energy efficiency, renewable energy, waste and wastewater, and transport, but there

65、 are none in the Philippines and China. Low-carbon development projects that are fun</p><p>　　本科畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯</p><p>　　外文題目： Carbon Finance for Low-Carbon Community Developmentin East Asia

66、 </p><p>　　出 處： Institute for Global Environmental Strategies(IGES) </p><p>　　作 者： Hidenori Nakamura, Policy

67、 Researcher, Policy and Governance Team </p><p>　　譯 文： 低碳金融在東亞地區(qū)的發(fā)展</p><p>　　低碳發(fā)展在東亞地區(qū),要求在有效條件的約束下，實現(xiàn)發(fā)展預(yù)期目標(biāo)，有助于緩解氣候變化。以減緩氣候變化為目標(biāo)做出應(yīng)有的努力。其

68、中重要的是幫助發(fā)展中國家完成低碳發(fā)展的歷程。然而,這并不容易實現(xiàn),而其中最主要的障礙是金融困難。在許多發(fā)展中國家,當(dāng)?shù)氐馁Y金來源是難得的。為了解決這一問題的障礙,本文研究探討了從發(fā)達國家潛在的資金形式來幫助預(yù)期目標(biāo)的實現(xiàn),如碳排放額度和自愿碳抵消。在最近的實踐中,這些操作可以支持低碳發(fā)展計劃，比如說在發(fā)展中國家的歷程。</p><p>　　本文嘗試解決多的問題。什么是碳金融狀態(tài)低碳關(guān)于國家發(fā)展計劃。資金在東亞發(fā)展

69、中國家的項目如何造福國家以及如何減少溫室氣體(溫室氣體排放降低效應(yīng))對低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展中國家項目產(chǎn)生的效應(yīng),其中可以是在發(fā)達國家以非營利財政資金(例如,借款,不尋求財務(wù)回報)或貢獻非營利機構(gòu)和基金會(非營利組織)的形式。項目的支持者,可以是地方政府，也可以是一些私人組織，這些機構(gòu)如何更好的利用碳金融低碳經(jīng)濟發(fā)展項目?另外還有什么其他利益相關(guān)者,包括各國政府及國際組織支持這個地方的措施。</p><p>　　該報告調(diào)查

70、了上述問題,并討論了產(chǎn)生的影響，特別是為當(dāng)?shù)卣谕苿拥胤降吞冀?jīng)濟的發(fā)展在能源問題、廢紙和運輸、和發(fā)展的政策建議，為國內(nèi)和國際的公共機構(gòu)支持特別是東亞發(fā)展中國家比如：菲律賓、印尼和中國等等。要回答這些問題,三個國家的案例研究,進行了深入的研究和初步測量包括總共9個案例研究項目在這三個國家。</p><p>　　本研究發(fā)現(xiàn),有越來越多的發(fā)展導(dǎo)向清潔發(fā)展機制(CDM)項目在這三個國家產(chǎn)生。同樣地,有一些以減緩氣候變

71、化的碳金融發(fā)展項目在印尼等國家,一些低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展計劃的貢獻并沒有包括碳排放額度的資助和捐贈,在菲律賓和印度尼西亞,沒有項目資助非營利金融系統(tǒng)。</p><p>　　研究還表明在國際碳金融的利用中存在一些障礙，特別是碳金融,在一些不利條件下對投資者來說,如高交易成本和有限的知識及經(jīng)驗的缺乏。本研究中也列出了政府在這個過程中扮演的角色,包括項目的支持者和協(xié)調(diào)員以及當(dāng)?shù)卣绾卫糜行侄未龠M項目的發(fā)展,如對于項目的支

72、持者來說,加強溝通各內(nèi)部的利益相關(guān)者,并提供必要的地方法令法規(guī)和制定本地對應(yīng)辦法以完善該項目的發(fā)展。</p><p>　　基于上述研究和分析,本文中提出國家利益相關(guān)者的幾種途徑,對進一步推動碳低碳國家發(fā)展金融計劃在東亞發(fā)展中國家起到了重要作用。</p><p>　　其中對項目感興趣的開發(fā)商或者對發(fā)展項目感興趣的,包括地方政府、私人公司,這些項目中如果國際技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)移妨礙了計劃的制定，那么就應(yīng)該

73、把現(xiàn)有的發(fā)展規(guī)劃將額外的溫室氣體排放量降低。為了利用碳金融、與選擇技術(shù),利用本地可用的技術(shù),使投資者來避免更高的成本。項目開發(fā)人員應(yīng)該也做出更大的努力的來完善和延伸碳管理和資源補償。</p><p>　　地方政府應(yīng)該利用碳金融計劃進行選擇,修改并實行適當(dāng)?shù)陌l(fā)展計劃,減少排放溫室氣體產(chǎn)生的影響,。地方政府也應(yīng)當(dāng)鼓勵發(fā)展和擴大可編程的方法,從而使得許多小規(guī)模項目可以聚集在某一地區(qū)。低碳項目可以是已有的發(fā)展項目,同時也

74、可以用碳信用生產(chǎn)和銷售收入中產(chǎn)生。國家政府的發(fā)展可以支持可編程的框架，地方政府也可以通過有效的協(xié)調(diào)與各國政府和本地及國際金融機構(gòu)的關(guān)系促進兩步貸款金融低碳國家發(fā)展計劃。地方政府已經(jīng)致力于感興趣的能源和資源的項目中，一些有效促進經(jīng)濟發(fā)展的實踐經(jīng)驗都可以從其他地方政府的知識和使用，正式和非正式個人和組織的網(wǎng)絡(luò)來借用。</p><p>　　各國政府及國際組織可以支持低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展計劃的項目,通過建立基金，用以經(jīng)營一個競爭

75、獎助金的計劃,將其獎助金用于潛在的金融項目方面，特別是表現(xiàn)出有積極的發(fā)展前景社區(qū)，在各國的地方政府和金融機構(gòu)做出的效益貢獻,并協(xié)助員工的知識傳播和推廣經(jīng)驗活動。</p><p>　　對于中國來說,唯一的低碳開發(fā)項目研究是發(fā)現(xiàn)了清潔發(fā)展機制項目和碳排放額度。發(fā)現(xiàn)了如何提高能源利用效率、可再生能源,和垃圾和污水管理在自愿碳抵消工程領(lǐng)域中。但是,這項研究并沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)任何低碳開發(fā)項目來自非營利和非盈利個人理財。所以盡管它可

76、能是一些低碳開發(fā)項目資助非盈利的民間金融，同樣也可能是國際發(fā)展援助資助非政府機構(gòu)發(fā)達國家。</p><p>　　清潔發(fā)展機制項目的數(shù)量已通過了中國DNA，并在大幅度增加。在2006年1月10日第一次清潔發(fā)展機制項目的正式被批準(zhǔn)，255個項目在2006年通過并圓滿結(jié)束。在2007年,773個項目被批準(zhǔn),570項目已2008年11月通過。在2008年11月，清潔發(fā)展機制項目的總數(shù)已經(jīng)批準(zhǔn)3 1,598個。大約一半的批

77、準(zhǔn)投資項目是水電項目。風(fēng)能、余熱/天然氣的利用、甲烷回收、更節(jié)能、更生物質(zhì)項目就是下一個最常見的項目進展情況。清潔發(fā)展機制項目涉及水電、風(fēng)力、甲烷回收率和生物量，這些被認為是地方低碳發(fā)展貢獻的能量和廢棄物管理領(lǐng)域特別是在農(nóng)村地區(qū)。</p><p>　　以發(fā)展為導(dǎo)向的數(shù)量產(chǎn)生的溫室氣體緩解項目關(guān)于自愿碳排放額度一直局限在中國地區(qū)。該研究還可以找到其他項目諸如造林,研究氣候、社區(qū)和生物多樣性等。</p>

78、<p>　　對于低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展項目,不產(chǎn)生碳排放額度。在中國非營利和非盈利民間金融發(fā)展的機會發(fā)現(xiàn)還是非常有限的。低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展項目的部門包括可再生能源、廢紙和廢水管理和運輸或資助國家、地方政府，國際組織等。</p><p>　　雖然所有項目都會有風(fēng)險，清潔發(fā)展機制項目的預(yù)期收益,可以看得出比其他許多經(jīng)營項目都有較高的風(fēng)險,具體到清潔發(fā)展機制項目額不確定性和成本的難以預(yù)估性。清潔發(fā)展機制項目的風(fēng)險從總體上可

79、以事先說明幾點,具體的介紹在以后的說明中。</p><p>　　第一個是登記的風(fēng)險。項目設(shè)計書必須通過三個層次的國內(nèi)批準(zhǔn)程序：包括城市、省份和國家的水平。對于國際申請,需要找到支持碳信用額度的買者,通過指定的經(jīng)營實體(DOE)驗證,并明確登記評估清潔發(fā)展機制執(zhí)行委員會。這個注冊過程一般時間是超過一年,當(dāng)然也有失敗的風(fēng)險登記的例子。</p><p>　　第二個風(fēng)險是交易成本抵押貸款的提前還款

80、,包括準(zhǔn)備成本,談判的成本,不確認成本,登記成本,監(jiān)測成本,驗證成本,收取咨詢費和DNA收費。此外,還有存在單位較小的項目反而花費了更多的費用的問題存在。</p><p>　　第三個風(fēng)險和間差距估算和實際數(shù)量的學(xué)分發(fā)行有關(guān)。這可能發(fā)生在例如項目的甲烷回收率垃圾掩埋場的情況下。</p><p>　　另一個問題具體到中國是,在CDM-EB多余性原則和國內(nèi)相關(guān)法規(guī)制定辦法之間存在矛盾。中國政府需

81、要每個清潔發(fā)展機制項目應(yīng)當(dāng)有一個更高的內(nèi)部行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),但CDM-EB認為這么高的IRR表示沒有多余性。因此,中國項目的支持者們需要修改可行性研究,以滿足要求CDM-EB后取得國內(nèi)批準(zhǔn)。</p><p>　　此外,中國還規(guī)定,關(guān)于一個清潔發(fā)展機制項目非上市公司的支持者的限制資格,排除了地方政府。這妨礙了一些清潔發(fā)展機制項目的發(fā)展，而那些項目地方政府作為組織協(xié)調(diào)者那就更為合適。例如在沼氣的情況下，微沼氣池的分布在重慶的

82、農(nóng)民項目。</p><p>　　在中國,地方政府在積極促進作用中扮演著不同的角色,但他們不進行持續(xù)發(fā)展或者執(zhí)行計劃的行為直接依據(jù)清潔發(fā)展機制法規(guī)來制定辦法。</p><p>　　闡述了上面的討論中存在的幾種類型的屏障對碳金融的阻礙,尤其在最初的預(yù)期上清潔發(fā)展機制具體到基金低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展。</p><p>　　第一類不利的條件是,使得投資者很難獲得潛在的融資。新技術(shù)應(yīng)用

83、在低碳領(lǐng)域被投資人看作是具有風(fēng)險的，使他們不愿意投資與該金融項目，正如他們在在菲律賓和印度尼西亞觀察到的一樣。低利潤率伴隨著高的交易成本、小型的項目或低大量的碳成分,也降低了對投資者的吸引力。高昂的交易成本具體體現(xiàn)在印度尼西亞和中國與在菲律賓、印尼,中國的小規(guī)模投融資項目。</p><p>　　除了這些不利條件外,還有地方政府官員和全體員工地方性金融機構(gòu)通常很少或者幾乎沒有知識和經(jīng)驗對于碳金融這個方面。這樣使得項

84、目開發(fā)和財政方面困難最大，尤其在菲律賓、印尼、乃至中國。這是第二次清潔發(fā)展機制項目的承辦國注冊的項目。此外,關(guān)于碳信用的概念，以及減緩氣候變化的一般情況來說,仍然很難使普通市民理解。</p><p>　　雖然這些壁壘并不一定是發(fā)展所有的碳金融項目所必須的特點，但是低收益率使得工程和新奇的發(fā)展型碳排放額度的降低，與此同時需要適當(dāng)?shù)目紤]一些可能促進發(fā)展的措施。</p><p>　　政府扮演的角

85、色：在中國,地方政府扮演了一個積極促進的角色,但他們并不制定和直接實施項目，這是由于清潔發(fā)展機制的法規(guī)所限制。</p><p>　　對于清潔發(fā)展機制項目,在中國，地方政府認識到通過當(dāng)?shù)氐陌l(fā)展帶來的好處在清潔發(fā)展機制項目上。當(dāng)?shù)卣袝r提供必要的土地和電力以及其他有利的條件。</p><p>　　如何促進低碳金融的發(fā)展：雖然清潔發(fā)展機制是一個碳金融機制。比較廣泛應(yīng)用于菲律賓、印尼、中國與其它

86、融資機制,但是仍舊可以擴展空間來使它的使用得到進一步發(fā)展。為達此目的，即使在不利條件下，清潔發(fā)展機制具體問題投資者也應(yīng)該采取相應(yīng)措施。</p><p>　　加強政府的作用：一些地方政府的角色扮演著有效促進支持者資助的項目以及促進年輕學(xué)者之間的交流。他們也提供土地和電、發(fā)達的必要的當(dāng)?shù)氐臋C構(gòu),并提供福利和補貼。</p><p>　　在國內(nèi)，這些地方政府的經(jīng)驗可共享給其他地方政府。有時在國際上

87、,對低碳感興趣開發(fā)商可以利用新的環(huán)保金融機制。</p><p>　　除了這些情況外，地方政府還能促進兩步貸款給金融低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展計劃從而有效地協(xié)調(diào)和一些國家政府以及本地及國際金融機構(gòu)。</p><p>　　一個關(guān)鍵問題是,地方政府可以使用碳融資發(fā)展項目,振興停滯不前的溫室氣體排放量的項目,因為額外的融資可以緩解儲蓄量。</p><p>　　個人理財非營利的進一步發(fā)展：

88、非營利性的障礙是低碳開發(fā)項目私人融資能否克服成本相應(yīng)增加的困難。社會商業(yè)模式如何創(chuàng)造社會價值,同時在還清初始投資的基礎(chǔ)上,不分利潤或紅利給投資者,如孟加拉國小額貸款業(yè)務(wù)由格萊珉或各種教育和醫(yī)療服務(wù)孟加拉國,是很吸引人的商業(yè)模式并可將其用于低碳社區(qū)發(fā)展東亞發(fā)展中國家。</p><p>　　在印度和中國有幾個可再生能源的試驗,這種情況下可能證明潛在的方法來克服這些障礙。他們包括太陽能光伏發(fā)電依靠小額信貸、太陽能光伏發(fā)

89、電操作和維護機制通過類似的精神ESCO、太陽能供暖來自兩步貸款、和太陽充電燈,受益人支付在印度。其他的案例包括太陽能光伏抽水灌溉系統(tǒng)在印度投資通過補貼、軟貸款和受益人付款和風(fēng)力發(fā)電的政府投資、部分資助的操作和維護受益人付款。</p><p>　　本研究發(fā)現(xiàn),至少有許多清潔發(fā)展機制項目,當(dāng)?shù)氐陌l(fā)展在菲律賓、印尼、中國,已經(jīng)有一些發(fā)展型緩解項目,在印尼生產(chǎn)自愿碳排放額度地區(qū)的能源使用效率,可再生能源、廢紙和廢水、和交