[雙語翻譯]隔代教養(yǎng)外文翻譯--祖父母對兒童和青少年生活的影響（英文）

1、The Influence of Grandparents on the Lives of Childrenand AdolescentsRachel DunifonCornell UniversityABSTRACT—Recent trends such as increased life expec- tancy, decreases in family size, and the rise of both single- pare

2、nt families and maternal employment increase the potential for grandparents to play important roles in the lives of their grandchildren. In this article, I review recent research and discuss directions for research on gr

3、and- parents’ influence on the lives of children and adoles- cents. I consider the role of nonresidential grandparents in children’s lives, grandparents’ influence in three- generational families, and the well-being of f

4、amilies in which grandparents are raising their grandchildren.Research regarding the influence of nonresident grand- parents on children is inconclusive, with several studies indicating no or negligible roles for grandpa

5、rents in such families. Studies of three-generational families suggest that children in such arrangements often fare just as well as children in married families, although these patterns vary by race. Finally, new resear

6、ch highlights areas of need and strength in custodial grandparent families and future research seeks to examine how these factors relate to children’s well-being.KEYWORDS—grandparents; grandchildrenGrandparents may play

7、a more important role in the lives of their grandchildren than ever before. Increases in life expec-tancy, from less than 50 years in 1900 to almost 80 years in 2005 (National Center for Health Statistics, 2010), mean th

8、at grandparents can sustain relationships with grandchildren throughout childhood and into young adulthood. Family sizes have decreased, meaning that grandparents may be able to focus their attention on fewer grandchildr

9、en (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Families’ need for grandparents’ involvement has increased, with growing numbers of children being raised by a single parent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011b), increases in maternal employment le

10、ading to a need for child care (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011), and grandparents increasingly stepping in to raise children when their parents cannot (Bryson e-mail: red26@cornell.edu.© 2012 The AuthorChild Deve

11、lopment Perspectives © 2012 The Society for Research in Child DevelopmentDOI: 10.1111/cdep.12016Volume 7, Number 1, 2013, Pages 55–60CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVESconsensus is hindered by a lack of coherence across

12、studies. Research in this area would benefit from a series of collabora- tive studies that use similar measures, methods, and outcomes when linking grandparents’ involvement to children’s well-being.THREE-GENERATIONAL HO

13、USEHOLDSThree-generational households consist of a grandchild, the child’s parent(s), and one or more grandparents. In 2011, 10% of U.S. children were living in such an arrangement: Seven per- cent of White children live

14、d in such families, compared to 14% of Black children, 13% of Hispanic children, and 15% of Asian children. In 2011, 5% of children living with married parents also lived with a grandparent, compared to 17% of those livi

15、ng with a single mother (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011b). Research on the implications of three-generational arrange- ments for children has often focused on children who were born to teen mothers. In general, living with a g

16、randmother benefits young mothers’ education (Unger Hao Wakschlag, Chase-Lansdale, opposite results were shown for White children. A key factor distinguishing these discrepant findings may be the age of the children e

17、xamined; Mollborn et al. examined infants and toddlers, whereas Dunifon and Kowaleski-Jones examined school-aged children. It is possible that in the early years, living with a grandparent is adaptive because grandparent

18、s can provide some of the hands-on care to children of this age require. In the school-aged years, however,grandparents may be less well equipped to help their grandchil- dren. This may be particularly true among African

19、 American grandparents who, due to histories of discrimination and disad- vantage, may, on average, have fewer of the academic skills necessary to benefit older children. Indeed, African American grandparents in Dunifon

20、and Kowaleski-Jones’s study had 1.5 years less education than their White counterparts. Overall, three-generational living arrangements are quite common, especially among single mothers. Research suggests that children i

21、n such arrangements often fare just as well as children in married families, although more research is needed to better understand how such patterns vary by race.GRANDPARENTS RAISING GRANDCHILDRENThe highest level of gra

22、ndparents’ involvement occurs among grandparents raising their grandchildren with no parent in the household, often referred to as custodial grandparent families. Currently, 2% of U.S. children live in such an arrangemen

23、t (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011b). Black children are twice as likely as White children and 3 times as likely as Hispanic children to be raised by a grandparent (Pew Research Center, 2010). Most children raised by a grandpar

24、ent are in an informal arrangement and are therefore outside the reach of many social service agen- cies (Macomber, Geen, Jendrick, 1994). Studies looking at custodial grandparent families have reported high rates of po

25、verty and low educational levels com- pared to other family types (Bachman Brandon, 2005; Solomon Sun, 2003). Not sur- prisingly, given the difficulties faced by many children being raised by grandparents, they tend to

26、 have more mental health issues than children in other family arrangements (Bilaver, Kienberger Jaudes, Koepke, Smith among the most common conditions were attention deficit disorders (Dunifon Sun, 2003), whereas othe

27、rs have shown that children in such living arrange- ments do not differ along these dimensions when compared to children in single-mother families (Solomon & Marx, 1995). Many of the differences in well-being between

28、 children being raised by their grandparents and those living with their parents appear related to high rates of poverty in grandparent-headed households rather than the living arrangement per se. The exception is school

29、ing, where children being raised by grandpar- ents have higher rates of suspension and expulsion and lower engagement in school than children being raised by their parentsChild Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number