外文文獻（市場營銷策略）

1、<p>　　Marketing Strategy</p><p>　　1 Market Segmentation and Target Strategy</p><p>　　A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.H

2、owever,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding

3、 which segments will be pursued ads target markets.</p><p>　　Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effective

4、ly by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is co

5、rrectly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.</p><p>　　The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single se

6、gment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is direct

7、ed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.</p><p>　　2 Positioning the Product</

8、p><p>　　Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management n

9、eeds to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.</p><p>　　Marketing executives can choose from

10、a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:</p><p>　　2.1 Positioning in Relation to a competitor<

11、/p><p>　　For some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an

12、advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intel Corp.launched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel

13、 Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and exe</p><p>　　2.2 Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or Attribute </p><p>　　Sometimes a company's

14、 positioning strategy entails associating its product with(or distancing it from)a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Made in the USA."In the wor

15、ds of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge ove

16、r large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which d</p><p>　　2.3 Positioning by Price and Quality</p><p>　　Certain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality product

17、s and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-quality continuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at the other.We're not saying,however

18、,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired—and for the most part succeeded in—repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing de<

19、;/p><p>　　The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrower terms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from

20、 competing products. </p><p>　　A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive c

21、olor or lettering.A brand mark is recognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant(canned and frozen vegetable produc

22、ts)and Arm&Hammer(baking soda)are both brand names and brand marks.</p><p>　　A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand ma

23、rk,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law Revision A

24、ct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.</p><p>　　For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store

25、 or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based sole

26、ly on price.The reputation of a brand also influences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities(Sunkist oranges,Morton s</p><p><b&

27、gt;　　3 Pricing</b></p><p>　　Pricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different

28、customers and situations.</p><p>　　Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through its life cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can

29、 decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the maximu

30、m amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low init</p><p>　　Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differe

31、nces in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented prici

32、ng, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,</p><p&g

33、t;　　4 Distribution Channels</p><p>　　Most producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel—a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process

34、 of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.</p><p>　　Why do producers give some of the selling job to intermediaries?After all,doing so means giving u

35、p some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, a

36、nd scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.</p><p>　　A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.It overcomes the major

37、time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:</p><p>　　1.Inform

38、ation.</p><p>　　2.Promotion.</p><p>　　3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.</p><p>　　4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such act

39、ivities as manufacturing and packaging.</p><p>　　5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the complet

40、ed transferred.</p><p>　　1.Transporting and storing goods.</p><p>　　2.Financing.</p><p>　　3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whethe

41、r these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they ca

42、n be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these funct</p><p>　　Distribu

43、tion channels can be described by the number of channel levels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel leve

44、l. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.</p><p>　　When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish th

45、e better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company

46、 will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size and quality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or select</p><p>　　Understa

47、nding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater eff

48、iciency in marking goods available to target markets. The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribut

49、ion channels can be described by the number of chann</p><p>　　5 Promotion </p><p>　　Promotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools——adve

50、rtising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling——work together to achieve the company's communications objectives.</p><p>　　People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the

51、many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work

52、hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.</p><p><b>　　市場營銷策略</b></p><p>　　1 市場細分和目標市場策略</p><p>　　具有需求，具有購

53、買能力并愿意花銷的個體或組織構成了市場。然而，在大多數(shù)市場中，購買者的需求不一致。因此，對整個市場采用單一的營銷計劃可能不會成功。一個合理的營銷計劃應以區(qū)分市場中存在的差異為起點，這一過程被稱為市場細分，它還包括將何種細分市場作為目標市場。</p><p>　　市場細分使公司能更加有效地利用其營銷資源。而且，也使得小公司可以通過集中在一兩個細分上場上有效地參與競爭。市場細分的明顯缺點是，其導致了比單一產(chǎn)品、單一大

54、市場策略更高的生產(chǎn)和營銷成本。但是，如果市場細分得當?shù)脑挘臃舷M者的需求，實際上將生產(chǎn)更高的效率。</p><p>　　確定目標市場有三種可供選擇的策略，它們是統(tǒng)一市場、單一細分市場和多重細分市場。統(tǒng)一市場策略即采取一種營銷組合用到一個整體的、無差異的市場中去。采取單一細分市場策略，公司仍然僅有一種營銷組合，但它只用在整個市場的一個細分市場中。多重細分市場策略需要選擇兩個或更多的細分市場，并且每個細分市場分

55、別采用一種單獨的營銷組合。</p><p><b>　　2 產(chǎn)品定位</b></p><p>　　管理者將注意力集中于一種品牌，并以恰當?shù)姆绞綄⑵渑c類似的品牌相區(qū)分，但這并不意味著該品牌就一定能夠最后贏利。因此，管理者需要進行定位，即塑造與競爭品牌和競爭對手的其他品牌相關的自我品牌形象。</p><p>　　市場營銷人員可以從各種定位策略中加以

56、選擇。有時，他們決定對某一特定產(chǎn)品采用一種以上的策略。以下是幾種主要的定位策略：</p><p>　　2.1與競爭者相關的定位</p><p>　　對一些產(chǎn)品來說，最佳的定位是直接針對競爭對手。該策略特別適用于已經(jīng)具有固定的差別優(yōu)勢或試圖強化這種優(yōu)勢的廠商。為排擠微處理器的競爭對手，Intel公司開展了一項活動使用戶確信它的產(chǎn)品優(yōu)于競爭對手的產(chǎn)品。公司甚至為電腦制造商出錢，讓它們在自己的廣

57、告中帶上“Intel Inside”標志。作為市場領導者，可口可樂公司推出新產(chǎn)品并實施其市場營銷策略。同時，它密切注視百事可樂公司，以確保對主要競爭對手的任何一次巧妙、有效的營銷舉措采取相應的對策。</p><p>　　2.2 與產(chǎn)品類別和屬性相關的定位</p><p>　　有時候，公司的定位策略有必要將自己的產(chǎn)品與其類別和屬性相聯(lián)系（或相區(qū)別）。一些公司盡力將其產(chǎn)品定位在期望的類別中，如

58、“美國制造”。用一句某顧問的話來說，“當你說‘美國制造’的時候，有一種強烈的感情因素在吸引著你”。因此，一家名為Boston Preparatory的規(guī)模不大的運動服制造商正在運用這種定位策略，以期勝過那些并非所有產(chǎn)品都在美國制造的勢力強大的競爭對手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。</p><p>　　2.3 通過價格和質量定位</p><p>　　某些生產(chǎn)者和零

59、售商因其高質量和高價格而聞名。在零售行業(yè)，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于該價格—質量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart則是定位于該策略的反面。我們不是說折扣商店忽視質量，而是說它們更加強調低廉的價格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多獲得了成功—通過升級高級服裝線和強調設計者的名字將其商店定位于價格—質量策略上。</p><p>　　“品牌”一詞是個綜合性的

60、概念，它包含其他更狹義的理解。品牌即一個名稱和（或）標志，用以識別一個銷售者或銷售集團的產(chǎn)品，并將之與競爭產(chǎn)品相區(qū)別。</p><p>　　品牌名稱由能夠發(fā)音的單詞、字母和(或)數(shù)字組成。品牌標志是品牌的一部分，它以符號、圖案或醒目的顏色、字體的形式出現(xiàn)。品牌標志通過視覺識別，但當人們僅僅讀出品牌名稱的時候，品牌標志并不能夠被表達出來。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名稱。AT&T由醒目的

61、線條構成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的馬和騎手是品牌標志，而Green Giant（罐裝冷凍菜蔬產(chǎn)品）和Arm&Hammer（面包蘇打）既是品牌名稱又是品牌標志。</p><p>　　商標是銷售者已經(jīng)采用并且受到法律保護的品牌。商標不僅包括品牌標志，如許多人所認為的那樣，也包括品牌名稱。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允許廠商向聯(lián)邦政府注冊商標，以保護它們免受其他廠

62、商的使用或誤用。1989年生效的《商標法修訂案》（The Trademark Law Revision Act）旨在健全注冊系統(tǒng)以維護美國廠商的利益。</p><p>　　對于銷售者來說，品牌可以被推廣。當他們陳列于商店或出現(xiàn)在廣告中時很容易被認出。品牌化減少了價格比較。因為在比較不同產(chǎn)品時，品牌是有必要考慮的另一因素，所以品牌化減少了僅僅依靠價格便作出購買決定的可能。品牌的知名度還會影響到購買服務和消費品的消費

63、者的忠誠度。最后，品牌化可以區(qū)別商品（例如Sunkist牌鮮橙、 Morton牌食鹽以及 Domino牌食糖）。</p><p><b>　　3 定價</b></p><p>　　定價是一個動態(tài)的過程，公司會為其所有產(chǎn)品設計一個定價結構。隨著時間的推移，公司會改變價格結構，并將之調整到適應不同的消費者和形勢的狀態(tài)。</p><p>　　公司應采

64、用多樣的價格調整策略來適應消費群體和具體情況的差別。一個是折扣和折讓定價，及公司依批量、功能或季節(jié)來決定折扣或不同形式的折讓。第二個策略是差別定價，即公司為不同的顧客、產(chǎn)品或因地點不同而制定兩個或兩個以上的差別價格。有時公司在作價格決策時不僅考慮經(jīng)濟因素，而且使用心理定價來傳達有關產(chǎn)品的質量或價值信息。在促銷定價時，公司會在短期內(nèi)以低于商品定價銷售產(chǎn)品，通過大甩賣來吸引更多的顧客，有時甚至低于成本銷售。運用價值定價，公司以公平價格提供相

65、應的質量和優(yōu)質服務。另一種方法是地區(qū)性定價，公司決定怎樣為遠距離的客戶定價。通常有以下幾種方法可供選擇：原產(chǎn)地定價、統(tǒng)一交貨定價、區(qū)域定價、基點定價和免收運費定價。最后，國際市場定價意味著公司調整其價格來滿足不同世界市場的需要。</p><p><b>　　4 產(chǎn)品的分銷</b></p><p>　　大部分生產(chǎn)商利用中間商將其產(chǎn)品推向市場。他們努力建立“分銷渠道”——

66、 一套指向消費者或企業(yè)用戶、提供商品或服務的彼此獨立建立的組織的總稱。</p><p>　　為什么生產(chǎn)者將部分銷售工作交給中介呢？畢竟，這樣做意味著放棄對產(chǎn)品如何銷售和向誰出售的某種控制。利用營銷中介可以提高商品走向目標市場的效率。中介組織以其社會關系、經(jīng)驗、專長以及經(jīng)營規(guī)模往往為生產(chǎn)商創(chuàng)造比其通過自身的努力所能獲得的更大的價值。</p><p>　　商品通過分銷渠道從生產(chǎn)者手中到達消費者

67、手中。時間、地點等因素不一致，會使商品和服務與消費者相分離，而分銷渠道克服了這個矛盾。分銷渠道的作用很多，有些起著促成交易的作用，如：</p><p><b>　　1.市場調研</b></p><p><b>　　2.促銷</b></p><p>　　3.接觸客戶的功能：尋找潛在購買者并與之溝通。</p>&

68、lt;p>　　4.適銷功能：是供給適應購買者的需求，包括加工和包裝。</p><p>　　5協(xié)調功能：就價格與其他交易條件達成協(xié)議以促成所有權的轉移。還有一些是功能是輔助交易的完成，如：</p><p><b>　　1.貨物儲運功能</b></p><p><b>　　2.資金融通功能</b></p>

69、<p>　　3.承擔風險功能：分銷商可以替制造商承擔分銷過程中的風險。問題不在于是否需要這些功能，而在于有誰來執(zhí)行這些功能。所有這些功能在三個方面是相同的，即它們都占用有限的資源，通過分工能更好地執(zhí)行這些功能，以及它們可以由不同的分銷商執(zhí)行。如果由制造商執(zhí)行這些功能，會導致高成本，繼而導致高價格。然而，如果一些功能轉由中間商執(zhí)行，則制造商的成本可能會下降。當然中間商會在價格中加入它們的工作成本。在分配分銷工作時，應當將其分配給

70、在滿足客戶的多種需求方面效率最高的分銷商。</p><p>　　分銷渠道可以用其涉及到的中間環(huán)節(jié)的多少來描述。將產(chǎn)品及其所有權向最終消費者專一的過程中的各個層次的營銷中介組織就是渠道層面。由于生產(chǎn)者與消費者都執(zhí)行某種職能，故它們也是分銷渠道的組成部分。</p><p>　　企業(yè)在選擇中間商時，要清楚具有什么樣的特征的中間商是更優(yōu)秀的。企業(yè)通常要考察中間商從業(yè)歷史的長短、經(jīng)營范圍、企業(yè)增長和

71、利潤的記錄、是否具有協(xié)作精神及其聲譽情況。如果該中間商是銷售代理，企業(yè)就要考察其經(jīng)營的其他產(chǎn)品的數(shù)量和特點、銷售規(guī)模和能力。如果該中間商是一個想獲得獨家或非獨家經(jīng)銷權的零售店，企業(yè)就要考察其顧客的情況、地理位置及其未來的增長潛力。</p><p>　　理解分銷渠道的性質是很重要的。因為選擇正確的分銷渠道是企業(yè)決策最重要的內(nèi)容之一。</p><p>　　之所以利用營銷中介組織，是因為他們在是

72、產(chǎn)品進入目標市場的過程中創(chuàng)造了更高的效率。分銷渠道的最關鍵的作用是，它能促成交易或輔助完成交易，從而將產(chǎn)品從生產(chǎn)者手中到達消費者手中。分銷渠道可以用渠道中介環(huán)節(jié)的數(shù)量來描述。在直接營銷渠道中，沒有一個中介環(huán)節(jié)，而在間接營銷渠道中，則有一個或多個中介環(huán)節(jié)。</p><p><b>　　5 產(chǎn)品促銷</b></p><p>　　促銷時公司營銷組合四個主要組成部分之一。主要