外文翻譯--網絡的誕生

1、<p>　　Birth of the Net</p><p>　　The Internet has had a relatively brief, but explosive history so far. It grew out of an experiment begun in the 1960's by the U.S. Department of Defense. The DoD wan

2、ted to create a computer network that would continue to function in the event of a disaster, such as a nuclear war. If part of the network were damaged or destroyed, the rest of the system still had to work. That network

3、 was ARPANET, which linked U.S. scientific and academic researchers. It was the forerunner of today's Internet. </p><p>　　In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) created NSFNET, a series of networ

4、ks for research and education communication. Based on ARPANET protocols, the NSFNET created a national backbone service, provided free to any U.S. research and educational institution. At the same time, regional networks

5、 were created to link individual institutions with the national backbone service. </p><p>　　NSFNET grew rapidly as people discovered its potential, and as new software applications were created to make acces

6、s easier. Corporations such as Sprint and MCI began to build their own networks, which they linked to NSFNET. As commercial firms and other regional network providers have taken over the operation of the major Internet a

7、rteries, NSF has withdrawn from the backbone business. </p><p>　　NSF also coordinated a service called InterNIC, which registered all addresses on the Internet so that data could be routed to the right syste

8、m. This service has now been taken over by Network Solutions, Inc., in cooperation with NSF. </p><p>　　How the Web Works</p><p>　　The World Wide Web, the graphical portion of the Internet, is th

9、e most popular part of the Internet by far. Once you spend time on the Web,you will begin to feel like there is no limit to what you can discover. The Web allows rich and diverse communication by displaying text, graphic

10、s, animation, photos, sound and video. </p><p>　　So just what is this miraculous creation? The Web physically consists of your personal computer, web browser software, a connection to an Internet service pro

11、vider, computers called servers that host digital data and routers and switches to direct the flow of information. </p><p>　　The Web is known as a client-server system. Your computer is the client; the remot

12、e computers that store electronic files are the servers. Here's how it works: </p><p>　　Let's say you want to pay a visit to the the Louvre museum website. First you enter the address or URL of the w

13、ebsite in your web browser (more about this shortly). Then your browser requests the web page from the web server that hosts the Louvre's site. The Louvre's server sends the data over the Internet to your compute

14、r. Your web browser interprets the data, displaying it on your computer screen. </p><p>　　The Louvre's website also has links to the sites of other museums, such as the Vatican Museum. When you click you

15、r mouse on a link, you access the web server for the Vatican Museum. </p><p>　　The "glue" that holds the Web together is called hypertext and hyperlinks. This feature allow electronic files on the

16、Web to be linked so you can easily jump between them. On the Web, you navigate through pages of information based on what interests you at that particular moment, commonly known as browsing or surfing the Net. </p>

17、<p>　　To access the Web you need web browser software, such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer. How does your web browser distinguish between web pages and other files on the Internet? Web pages

18、are written in a computer language called Hypertext Markup Language or HTML.</p><p>　　Some Web History</p><p>　　The World Wide Web (WWW) was originally developed in 1990 at CERN, the European La

19、boratory for Particle Physics. It is now managed by The World Wide Web Consortium, also known as the World Wide Web Initiative. </p><p>　　The WWW Consortium is funded by a large number of corporate members,

20、including AT&T, Adobe Systems, Inc., Microsoft Corporation and Sun Microsystems, Inc. Its purpose is to promote the growth of the Web by developing technical specifications and reference software that will be freely

21、available to everyone. The Consortium is run by MIT with INRIA (The French National Institute for Research in Computer Science) acting as European host, in collaboration with CERN. </p><p>　　The National Cen

22、ter for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, was instrumental in the development of early graphical software utilizing the World Wide Web features created by CERN. NCSA fo

23、cuses on improving the productivity of researchers by providing software for scientific modeling, analysis, and visualization. The World Wide Web was an obvious way to fulfill that mission. NCSA Mosaic, one of the earlie

24、st web browsers, was distributed free to the</p><p>　　Understanding Web Addresses </p><p>　　You can think of the World Wide Web as a network of electronic files stored on computers all around th

25、e world. Hypertext links these resources together. Uniform Resource Locators or URLs are the addresses used to locate these files. The information contained in a URL gives you the ability to jump from one web page to ano

26、ther with just a click of your mouse. When you type a URL into your browser or click on a hypertext link, your browser is sending a request to a remote computer to download a fil</p><p>　　What does a typical

27、 URL look like? Here are some examples:　　http://english.chinaschool.net/ 　　The home page for study english. </p><p>　　ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/ </p><p>　　A directory of files at MIT* available

28、for downloading. </p><p>　　news:rec.gardens.roses </p><p>　　A newsgroup on rose gardening. </p><p>　　The first part of a URL (before the two slashes* tells you the type of resource

29、or method of access at that address. For example: </p><p>　　http - a hypertext document or directory </p><p>　　gopher - a gopher document or menu </p><p>　　ftp - a file available fo

30、r downloading or a directory of such files </p><p>　　news - a newsgroup </p><p>　　telnet - a computer system that you can log into over the Internet </p><p>　　WAIS* - a database or

31、document in a Wide Area Information Search database </p><p>　　file - a file located on a local drive (your hard drive) </p><p>　　The second part is typically the address of the computer where th

32、e data or service is located. Additional parts may specify the names of files, the port to connect to, or the text to search for in a database. </p><p>　　You can enter the URL of a site by typing it into the

33、 Location bar of your web browser, just under the toolbar. </p><p>　　Most browsers record URLs that you want to use again, by adding them to a special menu. In Netscape Navigator, it's called Bookmarks.

34、In Microsoft Explorer, it's called Favorites. Once you add a URL to your list, you can return to that web page simply by clicking on the name in your list, instead of retyping the entire URL. </p><p>　　M

35、ost of the URLs you will be using start with http which stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol*. http is the method by which HTML files are transferred over the Web. Here are some other important things to know about URL

36、s:</p><p>　　A URL usually has no spaces. </p><p>　　A URL always uses forward slashes (//). </p><p>　　If you enter a URL incorrectly, your browser will not be able to locate the site

37、 or resource you want. Should you get an error message or the wrong site, make sure you typed the address correctly. </p><p>　　You can find the URL behind any link by passing your mouse cursor over the link.

38、 The pointer will turn into a hand and the URL will appear in the browser's status bar, usually located at the bottom of your screen.</p><p>　　Domain Names</p><p>　　When you think of the Int

39、ernet, you probably think of ".com." Just what do those three letters at the end of a World Wide Web address mean? </p><p>　　Every computer that hosts data on the Internet has a unique numerical ad

40、dress. For example, the numerical address for the White House is 198.137.240.100. But since few people want to remember long strings of numbers, the Domain Name System (DNS)* was developed. DNS, a critical part of the In

41、ternet's technical infrastructure*, correlates* a numerical address to a word. To access the White House website, you could type its number into the address box of your web browser. But most people prefer to </p&g

42、t;<p>　　In general, the three-letter domain name suffix* is known as a generic top-level domain and describes the type of organization. In the last few years, the lines have somewhat blurred* between these categor

43、ies. .com - business (commercial) .edu - educational .org - non-profit .mil - military .net - network provider .gov - government </p><p>　　A domain name always has two or more parts separated by dots a

44、nd typically consists of some form of an organization's name and the three-letter suffix. For example, the domain name for IBM is "ibm.com"; the United Nations is "un.org." </p><p>　　

45、If a domain name is available, and provided it does not infringe* on an existing trademark, anyone can register the name for $35 a year through Network Solutions, Inc., which is authorized to register .com, .net and .org

46、 domains. You can use the box below to see if a name is a available. Don't be surprised if the .com name you want is already taken, however. Of the over 8 million domain names, 85% are .com domains. </p><p

47、>　　ICANN, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, manages the Domain Name System. As of this writing, there are plans to add additional top-level domains, such as .web and .store. When that will actua

48、lly happen is anybody's guess. </p><p>　　To check for, or register a domain name, type it into the search box.It should take this form: myname.com </p><p>　　In addition to the generic top-l

49、evel domains, 244 national top-level domains were established for countries and territories*, for example: </p><p>　　.au - Australia .ca - Canada .fr - France .de - Germany .uk - United Kingdom </p>

50、;<p>　　For US $275 per name, you can also register an international domain name with Net Names. Be aware that some countries have restrictions for registering names. </p><p>　　If you plan to register

51、your own domain name, whether it's a .com or not, keep these tips in mind: </p><p>　　The shorter the name, the better. (But it should reflect your family name, interest or business.) The name should be

52、easy to remember. It should be easy to type without making mistakes. Remember, the Internet is global. Ideally, a domain name will "read" in a language other than English.</p><p><b>　　譯文部分&

53、lt;/b></p><p><b>　　網 絡</b></p><p><b>　　網絡的誕生</b></p><p>　　迄今為止，因特網的歷史雖比較簡短，但仍然是突破性的。在1960年代，因特網是在美國國防部的實驗中產生的。DOD希望發(fā)明一種計算機網絡，它能在類似原子核戰(zhàn)爭的重大災難中發(fā)揮作用。如果網絡的一部分

54、遭到損害，或者是毀滅性的破壞，那么系統(tǒng)的其它部分仍能正常工作。那個網絡就是阿帕網，它連接到美國的科學和學術研究人員。阿帕網是我們今天所用網絡是始祖。</p><p>　　在1985年，全美科學基金會（全美科學財團）創(chuàng)建了NSFNET，這是一系列用于研究和教育交流用的網絡。根據阿帕網議定書，NSFNET創(chuàng)建了國家支柱服務，即對任何美國研究是學術機構提供免費服務。同時，地區(qū)網絡把私人機構和國家主干服務連接起來。<

55、;/p><p>　　正如人們對其潛力的估計，也正由于使用起來更簡單的新的軟件的問世，NSFNET迅速地成長起來。類似美國Sprint通訊公司和美國著名的MCI公司的一些公司也開始構筑他們自己的網絡，這些網絡連接到NSFNET上。</p><p>　　當商業(yè)公司是其它的地區(qū)網絡提供商承擔起主要網絡動脈的管理是，NSF（全美科學財團）已經從主干商務中退了下來。</p><p&g

56、t;　　NSF也同一種叫做InterNIC的服務對等，InterNIC登記因特網上的所有的地址，以便數(shù)據能傳送到正確的系統(tǒng)中?，F(xiàn)在這項服務已由網絡Sloution公司是全美科學財團合力承擔了。</p><p><b>　　網絡是如何工作的</b></p><p>　　世界萬維網——因特網的一部分——是迄今為止因特網中最流行的部分。只要你肯花時間瀏覽網頁，你將會發(fā)現(xiàn)網上

57、沒有你找不到的東西！網頁通過展示文字，圖畫，動畫，照片，聲音和錄象來使得通訊豐富多采。</p><p>　　那么什么是這奇跡般的創(chuàng)造呢？網絡實際上包括你的個人電腦，網絡瀏覽器軟件，與INTERNET服務商的連接，被稱為主數(shù)字數(shù)據和路由器，以及引導信息流的開關。</p><p>　　萬維網已客戶機系統(tǒng)著稱。你的計算機是客戶；儲備電子文件的遠程計算機是服務器。以下就是它的工作方式：</p

58、><p>　　假設你要訪問Louver博物館的網點。首先在你的網絡瀏覽器中輸入這個網點的URL地址（等下還會有更多關于這的探討）。然后你的瀏覽器象主管Louver的網絡服務器請求網頁。Louvre的服務器通過因特網向你的計算機發(fā)送數(shù)據。你的網絡瀏覽器翻譯這些數(shù)據并把它們顯示在屏幕上。</p><p>　　Louvre網點也有其它博物館的站點的連接。當你在鏈接上單擊鼠標時，你從網絡服務器中取得焚

59、蒂岡的博物館的網頁。</p><p>　　使得萬維網聯(lián)系在一起的“粘合劑”是超文本和超鏈接。這個特征允許網上的電子文件被鏈接因此你可以很容易的跳過它們。在網上，你可以選擇你當時所感興趣的頁面來看，這通常被叫做瀏覽或者沖浪。</p><p>　　為了能上網瀏覽，你需要安裝網絡瀏覽器的軟件，例如網景或者微軟公司的Internet Explorer瀏覽器。那么你的網絡瀏覽器是如何區(qū)分網上的Web

60、頁面和其它的文件的呢？網頁是由超文本傳輸語言或HTML語言等計算機語言寫成的。</p><p><b>　　一些網絡的歷史</b></p><p>　　萬維網（WWW）在1990年在CERN——粒子物理的歐洲實驗室被開發(fā)。它現(xiàn)在由萬維網國際財團管理，萬維網財團也是著名的萬維網機構。萬維網國際財團向許多包括美國電話電報公司，阿道比系統(tǒng)公司，微軟公司和Sun Micros

61、ystems公司在內的公司的社團的成員提供資金。其目的在于通過發(fā)展技術規(guī)格和對每個人都免費的參考軟件來促進網絡的發(fā)展。國際財團由麻省理工學院和INRIA（法國國家為計算機科學的研究學會）運作，INRIA作為歐洲的主人，與CERN保持合作關系。</p><p>　　在厄巴納-尚佩恩的伊利諾斯大學的國際超高速計算應用中心（NCSA），在早期的物理軟件運用到由CERN創(chuàng)建的萬維網的發(fā)展中起到了一定作用。NCSA智力于通

62、過提供給研究人員用于模擬，分析，和想象的軟件來提高他們的生產率。明顯的萬維網就是完成那個使命的方法！</p><p>　　NCSA Mosaic——最初期的網絡瀏覽器之一，已被廣泛使用。是它導致了萬維網的非凡的成長！</p><p><b>　　網 址</b></p><p>　　World Wide Web可以被理解為存儲在全世界計算機上的網

63、絡電子文件。超級鏈接將這些資源連接在一起。統(tǒng)一資源標示符或者URLs是定位這些文件的地址。包含在一個URL里的地址信息可以使你輕輕一點便從一個網頁跳到其他頁面上。當你在瀏覽器上鍵入URL地址或者點擊超級鏈接，你的瀏覽器會立刻發(fā)一個請求到遠端的主機去下載文件。</p><p>　　傳統(tǒng)的URL是什么樣的呢？這有幾個例子：</p><p>　　http://english.chinaschoo

64、l.net/</p><p>　　這是張英文學習的首頁。</p><p>　　ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/</p><p>　　MIT學院主頁下的一個文件下載路徑</p><p>　　news:rec.gardens.roses</p><p>　　一個關于玫瑰園藝的新聞組</p>&l

65、t;p>　　一個URL的第一部分（雙斜杠之前的部份）為資源的類型或者這個地址的存取方法。</p><p><b>　　例如：</b></p><p>　　http- 表示一個超文本文檔或路徑</p><p>　　gopher- 表示一個gopher文檔或菜單</p><p>　　ftp- 表示一個可以下載的文件或一

66、個這種文件的路徑</p><p>　　news- 表示一個新聞組</p><p>　　telnet- 表示一個通過Internet登陸的計算機系統(tǒng)</p><p>　　WAIS-表示一個廣域信息搜索數(shù)據庫的數(shù)據庫或文檔</p><p>　　file- 表示一個存儲在本地硬盤上的文件（你的硬盤）</p><p>　　第二

67、部分是放置數(shù)據或服務的一個典型計算機地址。其他部分可以為具體的文件名，連接的端口號，或者需要在數(shù)據庫中查尋的文本。</p><p>　　你可以在網頁瀏覽器的工具欄下的定位條里鍵入一個站點的URL。</p><p>　　大多數(shù)的瀏覽器通過把你訪問過的URLS添加到一個特殊的菜單里將其記錄下來，</p><p>　　以便以后再次使用。再Netcape的Navigator

68、中，它叫書簽。在Microsoft Explorer中，則叫做Favorites。一旦你添加一個URL到列表中，你可以通過簡單的點擊列表里的名字返回那個網頁，而不用在此間如完全的URL.</p><p>　　你使用的大多數(shù)的URLs為http開頭代表Hypertext Transfer Protocol。http是一種將HTML轉換為網頁的方法。這有一些關于使用URLs應該注意的地方：</p>&l

69、t;p>　　一個URL通常不包括空格。</p><p>　　一個 URL通常要到用雙斜杠。</p><p>　　如果你輸入的URL不正確的，你的瀏覽器將不能找到你想要的站點或資源。</p><p>　　你將會收到一個錯誤的信息或訪問一個錯誤的網頁，所以確保你鍵入地址的正確性。</p><p>　　當你將鼠標的光標放到一個鏈接上，在這個鏈

70、接的URL將顯現(xiàn)出來。鼠標的指針將變?yōu)槭譅疃襏RL將出現(xiàn)在瀏覽器屏幕的底端的狀態(tài)條里。</p><p><b>　　域 名</b></p><p>　　當你想到Internet,你可能會想到“.com”。這個WWW網址的最后三個字母到底實是什么意思呢？</p><p>　　在Internet的主機數(shù)據上，每個主機有一個獨特的數(shù)字地址。例如，代

71、表白宮的地址是198.137.240.100。因為很少人想去記那么一長串數(shù)字，所以域名系統(tǒng)被開發(fā)出來。DNS，作為一項Internet核心技術架構的一部分，將一個數(shù)字地址關聯(lián)為一個詞。要訪問白宮的網站，你當然可以敲入那一串數(shù)字在地址欄里，但大多數(shù)人更愿意使用www.whitehouse.gov來代替它。在這個例子中，域名為whitehouse.gov。</p><p>　　通常，三個字母的后綴域名被作為通用頂級域

72、名用來描述一個組織類型。在過去的幾年中這種類之間的劃分已經變得有些模糊了。</p><p>　　.com - 商業(yè)（金融）</p><p>　　.edu - 教育</p><p><b>　　.org- 非盈利</b></p><p><b>　　.mil- 軍事</b></p>&

73、lt;p>　　.net- 網絡提供商</p><p><b>　　.gov- 政府</b></p><p>　　一個域名總是包括2個或更多被點分的部分，并且通常包括一個組織名字的某種形式和三個字母的后綴。例如，IBM的域名為“ibm.com”；聯(lián)合國的域名為“un.org”。</p><p>　　一旦一個域名可用，它作為已存在商標不被侵犯

74、，任何人可以通過Network Solutions,Inc.花35$注冊一個“.com、.net或.org”的被授權的名字。你可在查詢文本框中輸入并確認你想要的域名是否可用。不要懷疑你想要的“.com”的域名已經有了。在超過800萬的域名中85%為“.com”域。</p><p>　　ICANN，分配名字和號碼的Internet公司管理DNS。當本文寫到這里的時候，還有其他的域名被計劃加入頂級域名的行列之中。如：

75、.web和.store。人們其實早已猜出這些事情的發(fā)生。</p><p>　　為了檢查或注冊一個域名，將其鍵入查詢框中。應該用這種形式：myname.com</p><p>　　除了通用頂級域名之外，244個國家頂級域名被建立代表不同國家和領土。例如：</p><p>　　.au-Australia</p><p>　　.ca –Canada

76、</p><p>　　.fr –France</p><p>　　.uk –United Kingdong </p><p>　　花上275$你還可注冊一個帶有Net Names的國際域名，但請注意，一些國家限制注冊此類名字</p><p>　　如果你計劃注冊你自己的域名，無論是“.com”的還是其他的。請記住如下幾條。</p>