tpo17-24的閱讀原文整理版

1、iBTTPO之家之家EuropesEarlySeaTradewithAsia(TPO171)InthefourteenthcenturyanumberofpoliticaldevelopmentscutEuropesoverltraderoutestosoutherneasternAsiawithwhichEuropehadhadimptanthighlyprofitablecommercialtiessincethetwelfthce

2、ntury.ThisdevelopmentcomingasitdidwhenthebottomhadfallenoutoftheEuropeaneconomyprovidedanimpetustoalonghelddesiretosecuredirectrelationswiththeEastbyestablishingaseatrade.Widelyreptedifsomewhatdistrustedaccountsbyfigures

3、likethefamoustravelerfromVenice.MarcoPoloofthewillingnessofpeopleinChinatotradewithEuropeansoftheimmensityofthewealthtobegainedbysuchcontactmadetheideairresistiblePossibilitiesftradeseemedpromisingbutnohopeexistedfmainta

4、iningthetraditionalroutesoverlAnewwayhadtobefound.Thechiefproblemwastechnological:HowweretheEuropeanstoreachtheEastEuropesmaritimetraditionhaddevelopedinthecontextofeasilynavigableseas—theMediterraneantheBaltic.toalesser

5、extenttheNthSeabetweenEngltheContinent—notofvastoceans.Newtypesofshipswereneedednewmethodsoffindingoneswaynewtechniquesffinancingsovastascheme.Thesheerscaleoftheinvestmentittooktobegincommercialexpansionatseareflectsthei

6、mmensityoftheprofitsthatsuchEastWesttradecouldcreateSpiceswerethemostsoughtaftercommodities.SpicesnotonlydramaticallyimprovedthetasteoftheEuropeandietbutalsowereusedtomanufactureperfumescertainmedicines.Butevenhighpriced

7、commoditieslikespiceshadtobetransptedinlargebulkindertojustifytheexpensetroubleofsailingaroundtheAfricancontinentallthewaytoIndiaChina.TheprincipalseagoingshipusedthroughoutthedleAgeswasthegalleyalonglowshipfittedwithsai

8、lsbutdrivenprimarilybyoars.Thelargestgalleyshadasmanyas50oarsmenSincetheyhadrelativelyshallowhullstheywereunstablewhendrivenbysailwhenonroughwater:hencetheywereunsuitablefthevoyagetotheEast.EveniftheyhuggedtheAfricancoas

9、tlinetheyhadlittlechanceofsurvivingacrossingoftheIndianOceanShtlyafter1400.Shipbuildersbegandevelopinganewtypeofvesselproperlydesignedtooperateinroughopenwater:thecaravel.Ithadawiderdeeperhullthanthegalleyhencecouldcarry

10、mecargo:increasedstabilitymadeitpossibletoaddmultiplemastssails.Inthelargestcaravelstwomainmastsheldlargesquaresailsthatprovidedthebulkofthethrustdrivingtheshipfwardwhileasmallerfwardmastheldatriangularshapedsailcalledal

11、ateensailwhichcouldbemovedintoavarietyofpositionstomaneuvertheship.Theastrolabehadlongbeentheprimaryinstrumentfnavigationhavingbeenintroducedintheeleventhcentury.ItoperatedbymeasuringtheheightoftheSunthefixedstars:bycalc

12、ulatingtheanglescreatedbythesepointsitdeterminedthedegreeoflatitudeatwhichonestood(Theproblemofdetermininglongitudethoughwasnotsolveduntiltheeighteenthcentury.)Bytheearlythirteenthcentury.WesternEuropeanshadalsodeveloped

13、putintousethemagiccompasswhichhelpedwhencloudsobliteratedboththeSunthestars.Alsobeginninginthethirteenthcenturytherewerenewmapsrefinedbyprecisecalculationsthereptsofsailsthatmadeitpossibletotraceonespathwithreasonableacc

14、uracy.Certaininstitutionalpracticalnmshadbecomeestablishedaswell.AmaritimecodeknownastheConsulateoftheSea.whichiginatedinthewesternMediterraneanregioninthefourteenthcenturywonacceptancebyamajityofseagoersasthenmativecode

15、fmaritimeconductitdefinedsuchmattersastheauthityofashipsofficersprotocolsofcommpaystructurestherightsofsailstherulesofengagementwhenshipsmetoneanotheronthesealanes.Thusbyabout1400thekeyelementswereinplacetoenableEuropeto

16、beginitsseawardadventure.AnimalSignalsintheRainFest(TPO172)ThedaytimequalityoflightinfestsvarieswiththedensityofthevegetationtheangleoftheSuntheamountofcloudinthesky.Bothanimalsplantshavedifferentappearancesinthesevariou

17、slightingconditions.Acolpatternthatisrelativelyindistinctinonekindoflightmaybequiteconspicuousinanother.iBTTPO之家之家defenseagainstinternalparasites.Attimesitisactuallypossibletowatchtheeffectsofnaturalioninhostparasiterela

18、tionships.FexampleAustraliaduringthe1940swasoverrunbyhundredsofmillionsofEuropeanrabbits.TherabbitsdestroyedhugeexpansesofAustraliathreatenedthesheepcattleindustries.In1950myxomavirusaparasitethataffectsrabbitswasdeliber

19、atelyintroducedintoAustraliatocontroltherabbitpopulation.Spreadrapidlybymosquitoesthevirusdevastatedtherabbitpopulation.Theviruswaslessdeadlytotheoffspringofsurvivingrabbitshoweveritcausedlesslessharmovertheyears.Apparen

20、tlygenotypes(thegeicmakeupofanganism)intherabbitpopulationwereedthatwerebetterabletoresisttheparasite.Meanwhilethedeadlieststrainsofthevirusperishedwiththeirhostsasnaturalionfavedstrainsthatcouldinfecthostsbutnotkillthem

21、.Thusnaturalionstabilizedthishostparasiterelationship.Incontrasttoparasitismincommensalismonepartnerbenefitswithoutsignificantlyaffectingtheother.Fewcasesofabsolutecommensalismprobablyexistbecauseitisunlikelythatoneofthe

22、partnerswillbecompletelyunaffected.Commensalassociationssometimesinvolveonespeciesobtainingfoodthatisinadvertentlyexposedbyanother.Finstanceseveralkindsofbirdsfeedoninsectsflushedoutofthegrassbygrazingcattle.Itisdifficul

23、ttoimaginehowthiscouldaffectthecattlebuttherelationshipmayhelphindertheminsomewaynotyetrecognized.ThethirdtypeofsymbiosismutualismbenefitsbothpartnersintherelationshipLegumeplantstheirnitrogenfixingbacteriatheinteraction

24、sbetweenfloweringplantstheirpollinatsareexamplesofmutualisticassociation.Inthefirstcasetheplantsprovidethebacteriawithcarbohydratesotherganiccompoundsthebacteriahaveenzymesthatactascatalyststhateventuallyaddnitrogentothe

25、soilenrichingit.Inthesecondcasepollinats(insectsbirds)obtainfoodfromthefloweringplanttheplanthasitspollendistributedseedsdispersedmuchmeefficientlythantheywouldbeiftheywerecarriedbythewindonly.Anotherexampleofmutualismwo

26、uldbethebullshnacaciatreewhichgrowsinCentralSouthAmerica.ThetreeprovidesaplacetolivefantsofthegenusPseudomyrmex.Theantsliveinlargehollowthnseatsugarsecretedbythetree.Theantsalsoeatyellowstructuresatthetipofleaflets:these

27、areproteinrichseemtohavenofunctionfthetreeexcepttoattractants.Theantsbenefitthehosttreebyattackingvirtuallyanythingthattouchesit.Theystingotherinsectslargeherbives(animalsthateatonlyplants)evenclipsurroundingvegetationth

28、atgrowsnearthetree.Whentheantsareremovedthetreesusuallydieprobablybecauseherbivesdamagethemsomuchthattheyareunabletocompetewithsurroundingvegetationflightgrowingspace.Thecomplexinterplayofspeciesinsymbioticrelationshipsh

29、ighlightsanimptantpointaboutcommunities:Theirstructuredependsonawebofdiverseconnectionsamongganisms.IndustrializationintheherlsScinavia(TPO181)WhilesomeEuropeancountriessuchasEnglGermanybegantoindustrializeintheeighteent

30、hcenturytheherlstheScinaviancountriesofDenmarkNwaySwedendevelopedlater.■Allfourofthesecountrieslaggedconsiderablybehindintheearlynieenthcentury.■Howevertheyindustrializedrapidlyinthesecondhalfofthecenturyespeciallyinthel

31、asttwothreedecades.■Inviewoftheirlaterstarttheirlackofcoal—undoubtedlythemainreasontheywerenotamongtheearlyindustrializers—itisimptanttounderstthesourcesoftheirsuccess.■Allhadsmallpopulations.Atthebeginningofthenieenthce

32、ntury，DenmarkNwayhadfewerthan1millionpeoplewhileSwedentheherlshadfewerthan2.5millioninhabitants.Allexhibitedmoderategrowthratesinthecourseofthecentury(DenmarkthehighestSwedenthelowest)butallmethandoubledinpopulationby190

33、0.Densityvariedgreatly.TheherlshadoneofthehighestpopulationdensitiesinEuropewhereasNwaySwedenhadthelowestDenmarkwasinbetweenbutclosertotheherls.Consideringhumancapitalasaacteristicofthepopulationhoweverallfourcountrieswe