[雙語翻譯]--新能源汽車外文翻譯--運輸系統(tǒng)中替代燃料的歷史電動和混合動力汽車案例（節(jié)選）

1、3700 英文單詞， 英文單詞，20000 英文字符，中文 英文字符，中文 6500 字出處： 出處：Høyer K G. The history of alternative fuels in transportation: The case of electric and hybrid cars[J]. Utilities Policy, 2008, 16(2):63-71.The history of alternati

2、ve fuels in transportation: The case of electric and hybrid carsKarl Georg HøyerAbstractThe article describes and presents a critical analysis of the long history of alternative fuels and propulsion technologies, pa

3、rticularly in automobile applications. Cases are electric and hybrid cars. The term ‘‘critical analysis” refers to the analysis of the various alternative technologies in relation to their societal contexts. In particula

4、r, these are the varying contexts of energy security, energy policy, environmental problems, sustainability, and also the later more explicit climate change context. This approach gives some knowledge with relevance to t

5、he current discussions on implementation issues. The work is first of all founded on the knowledge field of ‘‘Social Studies of Technological Systems”.Keywords: Alternative fuels history; Electric cars; Hybrid cars 1. El

6、ectric cars—the early innovatorsThe history of electric cars is closely related to the history of batteries (Wakefield, 1994; Sperling, 1995; Westbrook, 2001; Anderson and Anderson, 2005). The names of all the early inno

7、vators are still used today. In 1800, the Italian Alessandro Volta demonstrated that electric energy could be stored chemically. He himself was inspired by some earlier experiments made by his countryman Luigi Galvani. G

8、alvani was a professor in medicine, who carried out some rather cruel experiments in which he observed the twitching of a frog5s leg when subjecting it to what would later be known as electric current. In 1821, the Brito

9、n Michael Farraday demonstrated the principles of the electric motor—or generator—while applying Volta5s chemical pile as a component of his experiments. Later, in 1831, Farraday showed the principles of electromagnetic

10、induction with the close relation between electric currents and magnetism, thereby laying the foundation for the electric motors and generators explicitly required for electric cars. The first experimental light-weight e

11、lectric vehicles thus appeared both in the USA, UK and the Netherlands in the mid-1830s. Extensive developments in electrochemistry took place in these early years. In 1859, the Belgian Gaston Plante made a path-breaking

12、 demonstration of the first lead-acid battery cell. This implied the invention of the lead-acid battery still used as a starter battery in all internal combustion engine (ICE) cars and also as a power battery in most ele

13、ctric cars. Other chemical cell batteries were further developed in these years, for instance the iron-zinc battery. And only a few years later, in 1861, another Italian, Antonio Pacinotti, invented the “ring” direct cur

14、rent motor. The first electric vehicle—a tricycle—applying the Plante lead battery as a power source was demonstrated in France by a Mr Trouve in 1881. In the Seine the same year, he actually demonstrated the first elect

15、ric boat with a similar power source. During these years, the early 1880s, other similar electric tricycles with lead batteries were also demonstrated in the USA and UK. In this context, it is worth remembering that the

16、German Benz demonstrated the first ICE vehicle in 1885.Later on Thomas Edison joined forces, as he saw great opportunities for electric cars. He cars over longer distances, notably in several early car races where they c

17、ompeted with ICE and steam engine cars both for reach and speed records. Another somewhat later invention for the same purpose was a fast battery swapping system, with batteries on rollers that allowed the car owners to

18、easily roll out the discharged batteries and roll in the new charged ones (Anderson and Anderson, 2005).Besides intensive efforts to develop new battery types and inventive systems for fast battery exchange and rechargin

19、g, two other technologies were developed around 1900 which aimed at enhancing the reach of the electric car. Firstly, there was the principle of regenerative braking. This was demonstrated in Paris in 1887, utilising the

20、 ability of the electric drive motor to act as a generator charging the battery when overdriven mechanically by the vehicle wheels. In this way, driving downhill gives extra power back to the battery. The recharging load

21、s the drive motor—as a generator—enough both to achieve the necessary braking effect and to increase the energy stored in the battery. Early estimates showed that one would expect increases in car ranges up to 40%, just

22、as the estimates would be some hundred years later. Such regenerative braking became standard equipment in many of the models already sold in the early years of the 18th Century (Wakefield, 1994; Westbrook, 2001).The sec

23、ond important technology developed to increase the limited reach of the battery cars was the hybrid, so much more in focus at that point than a hundred years later. The notable car developer Ferdinand Porsche was one of

24、the first inventors in this field. His gasoline—electric car was shown at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These early hybrids also included regenerative braking technologies. Such a gasoline—electric hybrid car was demonst

25、rated as early as the Third Annual Automobile and Cycle Show in Paris in 1901. The American Electric Vehicle Co. in Columbia announced in 1902 in an advertisement the sale of its electric—gasoline hybrid, ‘‘to afford the

26、 maximum of safety, reliability, comfort and luxury (Write for catalogue of seventeen different Columbia models’’) (Anderson and Anderson, 2005). The hybrids were claimed to combine the best of two technologies; noiseles

27、s when driving in city areas and with no limits to the reach of the car outside the cities. The American journal The Automobile stated in a special issue in 1905 ‘‘...it certainly seems that there is a big future before

28、the petrol-electric car’’ (Anderson and Anderson, 2005). Mostly due to cost problems, the hybrid concept did, however, more or less disappear during the First World War, never to be looked seriously at again before the e

29、arly 1970s (Wakefield, 1998).7. Towards sustainable mobility with electric drivingBy the early 1980s, electric cars would come into focus again (Ulvonas, 1983; Mader and Bevilacqua, 1989; Wakefield, 1994). The problems o

30、f air pollution in larger cities were once again highlighted. And by the end of the decade, in 1990, California introduced their first zero-emission regulations, which in particular sparked new initiatives in developing

31、electric vehicles during the 1990s. Zero-emission vehicles became a new term applied. In this context, focus shall, however, be on quite another discourse; the sustainable development discourse. Since the late 1980s, we

32、have experienced a new and intensified focus on the need to develop alternative energy resources and technologies in the transport sector. Not only has this focus become an integral part of the current environmental and

33、alternative energy discourse, it has even come to dominate this discourse. The term is no longer soft energy paths, but sustainable energy systems, with energy for mobility purposes as a crucial part. Issues related to d