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1、<p><b> 3.外文資料原文</b></p><p> Progress in Computers</p><p> Prestige Lecture delivered to IEE, Cambridge, on 5 February 2004</p><p> Maurice Wilkes</p>&l
2、t;p> Computer Laboratory</p><p> University of Cambridge</p><p> The first stored program computers began to work around 1950. The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in th
3、e summer of 1949.</p><p> These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds. We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering and were confident that that
4、 experience would stand us in good stead. This proved true, although we had some new things to learn. The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly; what would cause a harmless flash on the sc
5、reen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.</p><p> As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embarass de richess. For example, we could use vacuum tu
6、be diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere. This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use. Those who have worked
7、 in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS. Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.</p><p> In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and we had to fight a number of
8、 major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right. I reme
9、mber that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers’ ways of doing things were not our ways. A minor source of irritation was that all IEE pub</p><p> Consolidation in th
10、e 1960s </p><p> By the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest. The number of computers in the world had increased and they were
11、 much more reliable than the very early ones . To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems. Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graph
12、ics was to come along.</p><p> Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes. This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day. They had to forget what they knew about circuit
13、s and start again. It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly. </p><p> Soon it was found possible to put more than one tr
14、ansistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits. As time went on, a sufficient level of integration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of
15、gates or flip flops. This led to a range of chips known as the 7400 series. The gates and flip flops were independent of one another and each had its own pins. They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a compute
16、r or anyth</p><p> These chips made a new kind of computer possible. It was called a minicomputer. It was something less that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable. Instead of havin
17、g one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a business or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.</p><p> Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more
18、powerful. The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost. Minicomputers transformed the situation.</p&
19、gt;<p> The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer; it had always been that way. This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry ‘going the ot
20、her way’. As time goes on people get more for their money, not less. </p><p> Research in Computer Hardware. </p><p> The time that I am describing was a wonderful one for research in computer
21、 hardware. The user of the 7400 series could work at the gate and flip-flop level and yet the overall level of integration was sufficient to give a degree of reliability far above that of discreet transistors. The resear
22、cher, in a university or elsewhere, could build any digital device that a fertile imagination could conjure up. In the Computer Laboratory we built the Cambridge CAP, a full-scale minicomputer with fancy ca</p>&l
23、t;p> The 7400 series was still going strong in the mid 1970s and was used for the Cambridge Ring, a pioneering wide-band local area network. Publication of the design study for the Ring came just before the announcem
24、ent of the Ethernet. Until these two systems appeared, users had mostly been content with teletype-based local area networks. </p><p> Rings need high reliability because, as the pulses go repeatedly round
25、the ring, they must be continually amplified and regenerated. It was the high reliability provided by the 7400 series of chips that gave us the courage needed to embark on the project for the Cambridge Ring. </p>
26、<p> The RISC Movement and Its Aftermath </p><p> Early computers had simple instruction sets. As time went on designers of commercially available machines added additional features which they thought
27、 would improve performance. Few comparative measurements were done and on the whole the choice of features depended upon the designer’s intuition.</p><p> In 1980, the RISC movement that was to change all t
28、his broke on the world. The movement opened with a paper by Patterson and Ditzel entitled The Case for the Reduced Instructions Set Computer.</p><p> Apart from leading to a striking acronym, this title con
29、veys little of the insights into instruction set design which went with the RISC movement, in particular the way it facilitated pipelining, a system whereby several instructions may be in different stages of execution wi
30、thin the processor at the same time. Pipelining was not new, but it was new for small computers </p><p> The RISC movement benefited greatly from methods which had recently become available for estimating t
31、he performance to be expected from a computer design without actually implementing it. I refer to the use of a powerful existing computer to simulate the new design. By the use of simulation, RISC advocates were able to
32、predict with some confidence that a good RISC design would be able to out-perform the best conventional computers using the same circuit technology. This prediction was ultimately</p><p> Simulation made ra
33、pid progress and soon came into universal use by computer designers. In consequence, computer design has become more of a science and less of an art. Today, designers expect to have a roomful of, computers available to d
34、o their simulations, not just one. They refer to such a roomful by the attractive name of computer farm. </p><p> The x86 Instruction Set </p><p> Little is now heard of pre-RISC instruction s
35、ets with one major exception, namely that of the Intel 8086 and its progeny, collectively referred to as x86. This has become the dominant instruction set and the RISC instruction sets that originally had a considerable
36、measure of success are having to put up a hard fight for survival.</p><p> This dominance of x86 disappoints people like myself who come from the research wings.both academic and industrial.of the computer
37、field. No doubt, business considerations have a lot to do with the survival of x86, but there are other reasons as well. However much we research oriented people would like to think otherwise. high level languages have n
38、ot yet eliminated the use of machine code altogether. We need to keep reminding ourselves that there is much to be said for strict binary compatibili</p><p> There is an interesting sting in the tail of thi
39、s apparently easy triumph of the x86 instruction set. It proved impossible to match the steadily increasing speed of RISC processors by direct implementation of the x86 instruction set as had been done in the past. Inste
40、ad, designers took a leaf out of the RISC book; although it is not obvious, on the surface, a modern x86 processor chip contains hidden within it a RISC-style processor with its own internal RISC coding. The incoming x86
41、 code is, af</p><p> In this summing up of the RISC movement, I rely heavily on the latest edition of Hennessy and Patterson’s books on computer design as my supporting authority; see in particular Computer
42、 Architecture, third edition, 2003, pp 146, 151-4, 157-8. </p><p><b> 4.外文資料譯文</b></p><p><b> 微機發(fā)展簡史</b></p><p> EEE的論文 劍橋大學,2004/2/5</p><p>
43、<b> 莫里斯 威爾克斯</b></p><p><b> 計算機實驗室</b></p><p><b> 劍橋大學I</b></p><p> 用第一臺存儲程序的計算開始出現(xiàn)于1950前后,它就是1949年夏天在劍橋大學,我們創(chuàng)造的延遲存儲自動電子計算機(EDSAC)。</p>
44、<p> 最初實驗用的計算機是由象我一樣有著廣博知識的人構(gòu)造的。我們在電子工程方面都有著豐富的經(jīng)驗,并且我們深信這些經(jīng)驗對我們大有裨益。后來,被證明是正確的,盡管我們也要學習很多新東西。最重要的是瞬態(tài)一定要小心應(yīng)付,雖然它只會在電視機的熒幕上一起一個無害的閃光,但是在計算機上這將導(dǎo)致一系列的錯誤。</p><p> 在電路的設(shè)計過程中,我們經(jīng)常陷入兩難的境地。舉例來說,我可以使用真空二級管做為門
45、電路,就象在EDSAC中一樣,或者在兩個柵格之間用帶控制信號的五級管,這被廣泛用于其他系統(tǒng)設(shè)計,這類的選擇一直在持續(xù)著直到邏輯門電路開始應(yīng)用。在計算機領(lǐng)域工作的人都應(yīng)該記得TTL,ECL和CMOS,到目前為止,CMOS已經(jīng)占據(jù)了主導(dǎo)地位。</p><p> 在最初的幾年,IEE(電子工程師協(xié)會)仍然由動力工程占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位。為了讓IEE 認識到無線工程和快速發(fā)展的電子工程并行發(fā)展是它自己的一項權(quán)利,我們不得不面對
46、一些障礙。由于動力工程師們做事的方式與我們不同,我們也遇到了許多困難。讓人有些憤怒的是,所有的IEE出版的論文都被期望以冗長的早期研究的陳述開頭,無非是些在早期階段由于沒有太多經(jīng)驗而遇到的困難之類的陳述。</p><p><b> 60年代的鞏固階段</b></p><p> 60年代初,個人英雄時代結(jié)束了,計算機真正引起了重視。世界上的計算機數(shù)量已經(jīng)增加了許多,
47、并且性能比以前更加可靠。這些我認為歸因與高級語言的起步和第一個操作系統(tǒng)的誕生。分時系統(tǒng)開始起步,并且計算機圖形學隨之而來。</p><p> 綜上所述,晶體管開始代替正空管。這個變化對當時的工程師們是個不可回避的挑戰(zhàn)。他們必須忘記他們熟悉的電路重新開始。只能說他們鼓起勇氣接受了挑戰(zhàn),盡管這個轉(zhuǎn)變并不會一帆風順。</p><p> 小規(guī)模集成電路和小型機</p><p
48、> 很快,在一個硅片上可以放不止一個晶體管,由此集成電路誕生了。隨著時間的推移,一個片子能夠容納的最大數(shù)量的晶體管或稍微少些的邏輯門和翻轉(zhuǎn)門集成度達到了一個最大限度。由此出現(xiàn)了我們所知道7400系列微機。每個門電路或翻轉(zhuǎn)電路是相互獨立的并且有自己的引腳。他們可通過導(dǎo)線連接在一起,作成一個計算機或其他的東西。</p><p> 這些芯片為制造一種新的計算機提供了可能。它被稱為小型機。他比大型機稍遜,但功能
49、強大,并且更能讓人負擔的起。一個商業(yè)部門或大學有能力擁有一臺小型機而不是得到一臺大型組織所需昂貴的大型機。</p><p> 隨著微機的開始流行并且功能的完善,世界急切獲得它的計算能力但總是由于工業(yè)上不能規(guī)模供應(yīng)和它可觀的價格而受到挫折。微機的出現(xiàn)解決了這個局面。</p><p> 計算消耗的下降并非起源與微機,它本來就應(yīng)該是那個樣子。這就是我在概要中提到的“通貨膨脹”在計算機工業(yè)中走
50、上了歧途之說。隨著時間的推移,人們比他們付出的金錢得到的更多。</p><p><b> 硬件的研究</b></p><p> 我所描述的時代對于從事計算機硬件研究的人們是令人驚奇的時代。7400系列的用戶能夠工作在邏輯門和開關(guān)級別并且芯片的集成度可靠性比單獨晶體管高很多。大學或各地的研究者,可以充分發(fā)揮他們的想象力構(gòu)造任何微機可以連接的數(shù)字設(shè)備。在劍橋大學實驗室
51、力,我們構(gòu)造了CAP,一個有令人驚奇邏輯能力的微機。</p><p> 7400在70年代中期還不斷發(fā)展壯大,并且被寬帶局域網(wǎng)的先驅(qū)組織Cambridge Ring所采用。令牌環(huán)設(shè)計研究的發(fā)表先于以太網(wǎng)。在這兩種系統(tǒng)出現(xiàn)之前,人們大多滿足于基于電報交換機的本地局域網(wǎng)。</p><p> 令牌環(huán)網(wǎng)需要高可靠性,由于脈沖在令牌環(huán)中傳遞,他們必須不斷的被放大并且再生。是7400的高可靠性給了
52、我們勇氣,使得我們著手Cambridge Ring.項目。</p><p> 精簡指令計算機的誕生</p><p> 早期的計算機有簡單的指令集,隨著時間的推移,商業(yè)用微機的設(shè)計者增加了另外的他們認為可以微機性能的特性。很少的測試方法被建立,總的來說特性的選取很大程度上依賴于設(shè)計者的直覺。</p><p> 1980年,RISC運動改變了微機世界。該運動是由P
53、atterson 和 Ditzel發(fā)表了一篇命名為精簡指令計算機的情況論文而引起的。</p><p> 除了RISC這個引人注目縮略詞外,這個標題傳達了一些指令集合設(shè)計的見解,隨之引發(fā)了RISC運動。從某種意義上說,它推動了線程的發(fā)展,在處理器中,同一時間有幾個指令在不同的執(zhí)行階段稱為線程。線程不是個新概念,但是它對微機來說是從未有過的。</p><p> RISC受益于一個最近的可用
54、的方法的誕生,該方法使估計計算機性能成為可能而不去真正實現(xiàn)該微機的設(shè)計。我的意思是說利用目前存在的功能強大的計算機去模擬新的設(shè)計。通過模擬該設(shè)計,RISC的提倡者能夠有信心的預(yù)言,一臺使用和傳統(tǒng)計算機相同電路的RISC計算機可以和傳統(tǒng)的最好的計算機有同樣的性能。</p><p> 模擬仿真加快了開發(fā)進度并且被計算機設(shè)計者廣泛采用。隨后,計算機設(shè)計者變的多些可理性少了一些藝術(shù)性。今天,設(shè)計者們希望有滿屋可用計算機
55、做他們的仿真,而不只是一臺,</p><p><b> X86指令集</b></p><p> 除非出現(xiàn)很大意外,要不很少聽到有計算機使用早期的RISC指令集了。INTEL 8086及其后裔都與x86密切相關(guān)。X86構(gòu)架已經(jīng)占據(jù)了計算機核心指令集的主導(dǎo)地位。被認為是相當成功的RISC指令集現(xiàn)在的生存空間越來越小了。</p><p> 對于
56、我們這些從事計算機學術(shù)研究的人,X86的統(tǒng)治地位讓我們感到失望。毫無疑問,商業(yè)上對于x86的生存會有更多的考慮,但是這里還有很多原因,盡管我們多么希望人們考慮其他的方面。高級語言并沒有完全消除對機器原始編碼的的使用。我們?nèi)孕枰粩嗵嵝盐覀冏约海何覀儜?yīng)該嚴格的與先前的應(yīng)用在機器層面上保持兼容。然而,情況也許有所不同,如果Intel的主要目的是為是生產(chǎn)一個好的RISC芯片。有一個已經(jīng)取得了更大的成功,我所說的i860(不是i960,它們有一
57、些不同)。從許多方面來說,i860是個卓越的芯片,但是它的軟件借口不適合在工作站上應(yīng)用。</p><p> 對于x86取得勝利的最后有一件有意思的事情。直接應(yīng)用先前x86的實現(xiàn)方式對于滿足RISC處理器的持續(xù)增長的速度要求,是不可能的。因此,設(shè)計者們沒有完全實現(xiàn)RISC指令集,盡管這不是很明顯。表面上,一片現(xiàn)代的x86芯片包含了隱藏實現(xiàn)的部分,好象和實現(xiàn)RISC指令集的芯片一樣。當致命的異常發(fā)生時,X86引入的
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